tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-64498297834354885552024-02-18T20:48:34.022-08:00turmudibiounesaAnonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11909319886329515670noreply@blogger.comBlogger15125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6449829783435488555.post-48304743898921272822013-07-17T06:17:00.004-07:002013-07-17T20:56:12.546-07:00BUBER AKBAR<span style="color: red;"><b>SUSUNAN KEPANITIAAN BUBER AKBAR 2013 ALUMNI 2012 SMAN 1 TANJUNGBUMI</b></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Ketua Pelaksana : Nurjali</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Sekretaris : Sriyani</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Bendahara : 1. Mutmainatul hasanah</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"> 2. Agustin susilowati</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Sie Acara + Pubdekdok : 1. Turmudi eka tata pradipta</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"> 2. Ningrati</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Sie Konsumsi : 1. Novita indah sari</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"> 2. Dewi putriana</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Sie Perlengkapan : Mohammad suaidi</span><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjPEaxObjNYGrdSIXA35yrGTHCpVRXWcPyrxypYC39KYl2AJRFeshDDsJmLIrsYYewD8OOv7k9z9lzPQknyhp6KeFy9bFDU-hyOvzm64lRtJOgsca3AeFpITLSHNmEXbeoQ3iYrT8SnrwU/s1600/ea57759fd33418de5c14e749e65a3955114be4ba.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="150" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjPEaxObjNYGrdSIXA35yrGTHCpVRXWcPyrxypYC39KYl2AJRFeshDDsJmLIrsYYewD8OOv7k9z9lzPQknyhp6KeFy9bFDU-hyOvzm64lRtJOgsca3AeFpITLSHNmEXbeoQ3iYrT8SnrwU/s200/ea57759fd33418de5c14e749e65a3955114be4ba.jpg" width="200" /></a></div>
<br />
<span style="color: #38761d;">Acara BUBER akan dilaksanakan pada Hari minggu tanggal 4 agustus 2013 jam 17.00 Bertempat di halaman utama SMAN 1 Tanjungbumi dengan pembayaran @Rp 20.000 *setelah B<span id="goog_1811443297"></span><span id="goog_1811443298"></span>BM naik*. Pembayaran dapat dilakukan ke seluruh panitia yang namanya sudah tercantum diatas.</span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #38761d;">Pembayaran selambat-lambatnya dapat dilakukan pada tanggal 31 Juli 2013. melebihi tanggal tersebut kami selaku panitia tidak menanggung konsekuensinya. </span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #f1c232;">Ayo segera daftarkan diri anda...</span><br />
<span style="color: #f1c232;">dan dapatkan pengalaman <b>TAK TERLUPAKAN....</b></span><br />
<span style="color: #f1c232;">ok......</span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #f1c232;"><b style="color: #6fa8dc;">Guest Star : BAPAK MULYADI</b> </span><br />
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<span style="color: #984806; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;"><a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/TQ0312800/glossary.htm#hibernation"><b><span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Hibernation</span></b></a> is a time when animals
‘sleep’ through cold weather.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This sleep
is not like human sleep where loud noises can wake you up.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>With true hibernation, the animal can be
moved around or touched and not know it.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>[Don’t you do this, though.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Some
animals only go into a torpor or temporary sleep time and can wake up
quickly.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Like BEARS.]<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>We are going to use the word 'sleep'
sometimes but hibernation is different from regular sleep. With normal
sleep, the animal moves a little, has an active brain, and can wake up very
quickly. With true hibernation, the animal appears dead. There is
no movement and it takes a long time for it to wake up enough to even walk
around.<br />
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>We will show you how animals get
ready to sleep the winter away, what it is like, and who does it.<br />
<b>GETTING READY:</b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>During the fall, hibernating animals eat more food than usual.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Their bodies will live off their body fat as
they ‘sleep’ through winter.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The animal
will use up the body fat it stores and not lose any muscle.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This causes the animal to come out of
hibernation thinner but still as strong as it was in the fall.<br />
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The animals get their winter nests,
dens and <a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/TQ0312800/glossary.htm#burrow"><b><span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">burrows</span></b></a> ready.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Different kinds of animals hibernate in
different kinds of safe spots.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When they
go into hibernation and their bodies slow down, enemies can get them
easier.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They try to pick the safest
place to spend the winter away from these enemies.<br />
<b>WHAT IT IS AND WHO DOES IT: </b>Hibernation is the way
that animals <a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/TQ0312800/glossary.htm#adapt"><b><span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">adapt</span></b></a> to the <a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/TQ0312800/glossary.htm#climate"><b><span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">climate</span></b></a> and land around them.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Animals must be able to live through extreme
cold…. or die.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Animals hibernate—or deep
sleep—to escape that cold.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They also do
this because it is really hard to find food during the winter.<br />
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>We don’t think about body energy too
often.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Our bodies are like machines that
need power to work right.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Food gives
animals the energy they need to walk, run, hunt for food, and lots of other
things.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Hibernating animals store food
as body fat during the end of summer and during fall.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This body fat runs their bodies all
winter.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This would be hard to do if they
stayed awake, moved around a lot, or ran around because those things would use
up the body fat before winter was over.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>A hibernating animal’s body saves energy by doing a couple of cool
things.<br />
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When an animal begins to hibernate,
its body temperature drops very low so that it almost matches the temperature
outside.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Your temperature is normally
about 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If you
were a hibernator and it was 30 degrees outside, your body temperature would
drop from 98.6 down to about 30-40 degrees. THAT’S cold! <br />
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The animal’s heartbeat and breathing
slow down, too.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This is when that stored
fat that the animal packed on in the fall comes in handy.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This stored fat lasts longer because their
bodies are slowed down so much that they don’t need much energy.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This is how the animal makes it through the
whole winter on the fat it has stored in its body.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This is why it's important for animals to get
enough food stored in the fall.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If there
is a shortage of food at that time, the animal might not live until spring when
it can find its food again.<br />
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Some of these hibernators also store
food in their caves and burrows.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
ones that do this do not sleep straight through the winter.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They wake up once in awhile, walk around a
little, and eat before they go back to sleep.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Some warm-blooded hibernators are:</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 2; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #e36c0a; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"><a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/TQ0312800/badger.htm"><b><span style="color: #e36c0a; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Badgers</span></b></a>,</span><span style="color: #e36c0a; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"> </span><span style="color: #e36c0a; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"><a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/TQ0312800/hedgehog.htm"><b><span style="color: #e36c0a; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Hedgehogs</span></b></a>,</span><span style="color: #e36c0a; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"> </span><span style="color: #e36c0a; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"><a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/TQ0312800/bats.htm"><b><span style="color: #e36c0a; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Bats</span></b></a>,</span><span style="color: #e36c0a; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"> </span><span style="color: #e36c0a; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"><a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/TQ0312800/hawk.htm"><b><span style="color: #e36c0a; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Nighthawks</span></b></a>,</span><span style="color: #e36c0a; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"> </span><span style="color: #e36c0a; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"><a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/TQ0312800/chipmunk.htm"><b><span style="color: #e36c0a; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Chipmunks</span></b></a>,</span><span style="color: #e36c0a; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"> </span><span style="color: #e36c0a; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"><a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/TQ0312800/poor.htm"><b><span style="color: #e36c0a; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Poor-Wills</span></b></a>,</span><span style="color: #e36c0a; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"> </span><span style="color: #e36c0a; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"><a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/TQ0312800/dormouse.htm"><b><span style="color: #e36c0a; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Dormouse</span></b></a>,</span><span style="color: #e36c0a; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"> </span><span style="color: #e36c0a; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"><a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/TQ0312800/dog.htm"><b><span style="color: #e36c0a; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Prairie Dogs</span></b></a>,</span><span style="color: #e36c0a; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"> </span><span style="color: #e36c0a; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"><a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/TQ0312800/lemur.htm"><b><span style="color: #e36c0a; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Fat-tailed lemurs</span></b></a>,</span><span style="color: #e36c0a; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"> </span><span style="color: #e36c0a; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"><a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/TQ0312800/raccoon.htm"><b><span style="color: #e36c0a; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Raccoon</span></b></a>,</span><span style="color: #e36c0a; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"> </span><span style="color: #e36c0a; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"><a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/TQ0312800/squirrel.htm"><b><span style="color: #e36c0a; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Ground squirrels</span></b></a>,</span><span style="color: #e36c0a; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"> </span><span style="color: #e36c0a; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"><a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/TQ0312800/skunks.htm"><b><span style="color: #e36c0a; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Skunks</span></b></a></span><span style="color: #e36c0a; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;">, </span><span style="color: #e36c0a; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"><a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/TQ0312800/hamster.htm"><b><span style="color: #e36c0a; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Hamsters</span></b></a>,</span><span style="color: #e36c0a; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"> </span><span style="color: #e36c0a; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"><a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/TQ0312800/swift.htm"><b><span style="color: #e36c0a; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Swifts</span></b></a>,</span><span style="color: #e36c0a; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"> </span><span style="color: #e36c0a; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"><a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/TQ0312800/grhog.htm"><b><span style="color: #e36c0a; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Marmots, Groundhogs, Woodchucks</span></b></a></span><span style="color: #e36c0a; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"> </span><span style="color: #e36c0a; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"><a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/TQ0312800/bear.htm"><b><span style="color: #e36c0a; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">And bears</span></b></a></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 2; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #984806; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">Cold-blooded
hibernators begin hibernation when the cold weather causes their body
temperatures to drop.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Cold-blooded
animals do not have a body temperature like humans do.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Our temperature stays about 98.6 degrees
Fahrenheit all the time.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Cold-blooded
animal temperatures stay the same as the air temperature around them.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If it is 50 degrees outside, the lizard is
around 50 degrees.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If it is 110 outside,
then they are about 110, too.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Since we
already said that hibernators adapt to their <a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/TQ0312800/glossary.htm#environ"><b><span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">environments</span></b></a>, you can see why these
animals would try to escape extreme cold AND heat by hibernating.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Hibernation is sleeping through cold and <a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/TQ0312800/estivation.htm"><b><span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">estivation</span></b></a> is sleeping through
heat.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Cold-blooded hibernators will wake
up when the air outside warms or cools enough for them to be comfortable.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Some cold-blooded hibernators are:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 2; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span style="color: #e36c0a; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"><a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/TQ0312800/bee.htm"><b><span style="color: #e36c0a; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Bees</span></b></a>,</span><span style="color: #e36c0a; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"> </span><b><span style="color: #e36c0a; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"><a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/TQ0312800/earthworm.htm"><span style="color: #e36c0a; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Earthworms</span></a>,</span></b><span style="color: #e36c0a; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"> </span><span style="color: #e36c0a; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"><a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/TQ0312800/frog.htm"><b><span style="color: #e36c0a; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Frogs and toads</span></b></a></span><span style="color: #e36c0a; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;">, </span><span style="color: #e36c0a; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"><a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/TQ0312800/lizard.htm"><b><span style="color: #e36c0a; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Lizards</span></b></a>,</span><span style="color: #e36c0a; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"> </span><b><span style="color: #e36c0a; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"><a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/TQ0312800/turtle.htm"><span style="color: #e36c0a; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Mud </span></a></span></b><span style="color: #e36c0a; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"><a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/TQ0312800/turtle.htm"><b><span style="color: #e36c0a; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Turtles</span></b></a>,</span><span style="color: #e36c0a; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"> </span><b><span style="color: #e36c0a; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"><a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/TQ0312800/snail.htm"><span style="color: #e36c0a; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Snails</span></a>,</span></b><span style="color: #e36c0a; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"> </span><span style="color: #e36c0a; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"><a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/TQ0312800/snake.htm"><b><span style="color: #e36c0a; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Snakes</span></b></a></span><span style="color: #e36c0a; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 2; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #632423; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent2; mso-themeshade: 128;">Hibernating mammals</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 3; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #984806; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">Rodents</span></b></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiDKF8PggmuWV5hmOQByPagGOrFVjRPZLd5NTl8aa8cDcwFoIinuzdDyW15ETW52ajarzI1_q-PMbysOCgnqCwXe-aM-TueZPe30OooQaQmKsz4-4JtlQaRDnF__x24wx1koGASEFdBoo0/s1600/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="197" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiDKF8PggmuWV5hmOQByPagGOrFVjRPZLd5NTl8aa8cDcwFoIinuzdDyW15ETW52ajarzI1_q-PMbysOCgnqCwXe-aM-TueZPe30OooQaQmKsz4-4JtlQaRDnF__x24wx1koGASEFdBoo0/s320/1.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #984806; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">Hibernation
among rodents has been extensively studied for decades. Species of ground
squirrel, marmot, prairie dog, dormouse, and hamster have all been shown to
demonstrate hibernation. These animals all exhibit the classic hibernation
pattern where body temperature remains at ambient temperature for days to
weeks, followed by a brief (<24hr) return to high body temperature.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 3; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #984806; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">Primates</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #984806; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">While
hibernation has long been studied in rodents, namely ground squirrels , no <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primate" title="Primate"><span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">primate</span></a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical" title="Tropical"><span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">tropical</span></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal"><span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">mammal</span></a> was known to hibernate prior to animal
physiologist <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kathrin_Dausmann&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Kathrin Dausmann (page does not exist)"><span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Kathrin Dausmann</span></a> of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philipps_University_of_Marburg" title="Philipps University of Marburg"><span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Philipps
University of Marburg</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany" title="Germany"><span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Germany</span></a>, and coworkers
presenting evidence that the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fat-tailed_Dwarf_Lemur" title="Fat-tailed Dwarf Lemur"><span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Fat-tailed Dwarf
Lemur</span></a> of Madagascar hibernates in tree holes for seven months of the
year. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar"><span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Malagasy</span></a> winter temperatures sometimes
rise to over 30 °C (86 °F), so hibernation is not exclusively an
adaptation to low ambient temperatures. The hibernation of this lemur is
strongly dependent on the thermal behaviour of its tree hole: if the hole is
poorly insulated, the lemur's body temperature fluctuates widely, passively
following the ambient temperature; if well insulated, the body temperature
stays fairly constant and the animal undergoes regular spells of arousal.
Dausmann found that <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hypometabolism&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Hypometabolism (page does not exist)"><span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">hypometabolism</span></a> in hibernating animals is not necessarily
coupled to a low body temperature. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 3; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #984806; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">Bears</span></b></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh2HWCxCeqRTeConx830Z8oBVFMif8b_6dEqM8Zj2nvdYyCuFR6wnuecZPduayIgQDTLFRxy3gW1SvI0iNTVdreIz-_W9Hc6JGLycJuLlfeUMIBpaaUsV6Yl5y1nqIOl74WdQzq7xp0fSk/s1600/2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh2HWCxCeqRTeConx830Z8oBVFMif8b_6dEqM8Zj2nvdYyCuFR6wnuecZPduayIgQDTLFRxy3gW1SvI0iNTVdreIz-_W9Hc6JGLycJuLlfeUMIBpaaUsV6Yl5y1nqIOl74WdQzq7xp0fSk/s320/2.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #984806; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">Bears
hibernate very differently than either rodents or primates. They rely on active
metabolic suppression, rather than a decreased body temperature to save energy
over winter. Despite their lack of body temperature change, bears have an
impressive hibernation physiology. They are able to recycle their proteins and
urine, allowing them to stop urinating for months. This is not considered
hibernation however, It is called "TORPOR". </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 3; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #632423; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent2; mso-themeshade: 128;">Obligate hibernators</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #984806; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obligate" title="Obligate"><span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Obligate</span></a> hibernators are defined as animals
that spontaneously, and annually, enter hibernation regardless of ambient
temperature and access to food. Obligate hibernators include many species of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground_squirrel" title="Ground squirrel"><span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">ground squirrels</span></a>, other <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodents" title="Rodents"><span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">rodents</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mouse_lemur" title="Mouse lemur"><span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">mouse lemurs</span></a>, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Hedgehog" title="European Hedgehog"><span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">European Hedgehog</span></a> and other <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insectivores" title="Insectivores"><span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">insectivores</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monotremes" title="Monotremes"><span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">monotremes</span></a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marsupials" title="Marsupials"><span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">marsupials</span></a>. These undergo what has been
traditionally called "hibernation": the physiological state where the
body temperature drops to near ambient (environmental) temperature, and heart
and respiration rates slow drastically. The typical winter season for these
hibernators is characterized by periods of torpor interrupted by periodic,
euthermic arousals, wherein body temperatures and heart rates are restored to
euthermic (more typical) levels. The cause and purpose of these arousals is
still not clear.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #984806; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">The
question of why hibernators experience the periodic arousals (returns to high
body temperature) has plagued researchers for decades, and while there is still
no clear cut explanation, there are a myriad of hypotheses on the topic. One
favored hypothesis is that hibernators build a 'sleep debt' during hibernation,
and so must occasionally warm up in order to sleep. This has been supported by
evidence in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_ground_squirrel" title="Arctic ground squirrel"><span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">arctic ground
squirrel</span></a>. Another theory states that the brief periods of high body
temperature during hibernation are used by the animal to restore its available
energy sources. Yet another theory states that the frequent returns to high
body temperature allow mammals to initiate an immune response. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #984806; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">Hibernating
arctic ground squirrels may exhibit abdominal temperatures as low as -2.9 °C,
maintaining sub-zero abdominal temperatures for more than three weeks at a
time, although the temperatures at the head and neck remain at 0 ˚C or above. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #984806; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">Historically,
there was a question of whether or not bears truly hibernate. Since they
experience only a modest decline in body temperature (3-5°C) compared to what
other hibernators undergo (32°C+), many researchers thought that their deep
sleep was not comparable to true, deep hibernation. This theory has recently
been refuted by recent research in captive black bears. </span><span style="color: #632423; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent2; mso-themeshade: 128;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 3; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #632423; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent2; mso-themeshade: 128;">Facultative hibernation</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #984806; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">Unlike
obligate hibernators, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facultative" title="Facultative"><span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">facultative</span></a>
hibernators only enter hibernation when either cold stressed or food deprived,
or both. A good example of the differences between the two types of hibernation
can be seen among the prairie dogs; where the white-tailed prairie dog is an
obligate hibernator and the closely related black-tailed prairie dog is a facultative
hibernator. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 2; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #984806; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">Hibernating birds</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #984806; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">Historically,
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder"><span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Pliny the Elder</span></a> believed <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swallow" title="Swallow"><span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">swallows</span></a> hibernated, and ornithologist <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_White" title="Gilbert White"><span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Gilbert White</span></a> pointed to anecdotal
evidence in <i>The Natural History of Selborne</i> that indicated as much.
Birds typically do not hibernate, instead utilizing <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torpor" title="Torpor"><span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">torpor</span></a>. One known exception is the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Poorwill" title="Common Poorwill"><span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Common Poorwill</span></a> (<i>Phalaenoptilus
nuttallii</i>), first documented by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Jaeger" title="Edmund Jaeger"><span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Edmund Jaeger</span></a>. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 2; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #984806; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">Dormancy in fish</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #984806; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">Fish
are ectothermic, and so, by definition, cannot hibernate because they cannot
actively down-regulate their body temperature nor their metabolic rate.
However, they can experience decreased metabolic rates associated with colder
environments and/or low oxygen availability (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypoxia" title="Hypoxia"><span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">hypoxia</span></a>) and can experience dormancy. For
a couple of generations<sup>[<i> </i></sup>during the 20th century it was
thought that <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basking_shark" title="Basking shark"><span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">basking sharks</span></a>
settled to the floor of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Sea" title="North Sea"><span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">North Sea</span></a> and became
dormant. Research by Dr David Sims in 2003 dispelled this hypothesis, showing
that the sharks actively traveled huge distances throughout the seasons,
tracking the areas with the highest quantity of plankton. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epaulette_shark" title="Epaulette shark"><span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">epaulette sharks</span></a> have been documented to
be able to survive for long periods of time without oxygen, even being left
high and dry, and at temperatures of up to 26 °C (79 °F). Other animals
able to survive long periods without oxygen include the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldfish" title="Goldfish"><span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">goldfish</span></a>, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red-eared_slider" title="Red-eared slider"><span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">red-eared slider</span></a> turtle, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood_frog" title="Wood frog"><span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">wood frog</span></a>, and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bar-headed_goose" title="Bar-headed goose"><span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">bar-headed goose</span></a>. However, the ability to
survive hypoxic or anoxic conditions is not the same, nor closely related, to
endotherm hibernation.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 2; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #984806; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">Hibernation induction trigger</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #984806; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">Hibernation
induction trigger (HIT) is a bit of misnomer. Although research in the 90's
hinted at the ability to induce torpor in animals by injection of blood taken
from a hibernating animal, further research has been unable to reproduce this
phenomena. Despite the inability to induce torpor, there are substances in
hibernator blood that can lend protection to organs for possible transplant.
Researchers were able to prolong the life of an isolated pig's heart with a
HIT. This may have potentially important implications for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organ_transplant" title="Organ transplant"><span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">organ transplant</span></a>, as it could allow organs
to survive for up to 18 or more hours, outside the human body. This would be a
great improvement from the current 6 hours.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #984806; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">This
supposed HIT is a mixture derived from serum, including at least one <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opioid" title="Opioid"><span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">opioid</span></a>-like substance. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DADLE" title="DADLE"><span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">DADLE</span></a> is an opioid that in some experiments has been shown to
have similar functional properties. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 2; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #984806; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">Artificial hibernation</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #984806; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">See also: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suspended_animation" title="Suspended animation"><span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Suspended
animation</span></a></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #984806; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">There
are many research projects currently investigating how to achieve "induced
hibernation" in humans. The ability for humans to hibernate would be
useful for a number of reasons, such as saving the lives of seriously ill or
injured people by temporarily putting them in a state of hibernation until
treatment can be given (compare <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induced_coma" title="Induced coma"><span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">induced coma</span></a>). In addition, hibernation
would be useful for humans during various proposed plans for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstellar_travel" title="Interstellar travel"><span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">interstellar
travel</span></a> in the future. Similar to human hibernation, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suspended_animation" title="Suspended animation"><span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">suspended
animation</span></a> deals with the slowing of life processes in general, by
external means and without termination.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 2; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #984806; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">Hibernation Research and Human Health</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #984806; font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">Hibernation,
and the species that are able to utilize it, has become a fantastic model for
many different human diseases. Hibernators make natural models for stroke,
ischemia-reperfusion injury,diabetes, obesity and depression to name a few.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11909319886329515670noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6449829783435488555.post-50998688977946498542012-12-20T04:24:00.005-08:002012-12-20T04:24:59.593-08:00bioma didunia<!--[if !mso]>
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<span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pada habitat darat dikenal istilah <b><span style="background: #FFFF66;">Bioma</span></b> yaitu daerah habitat yang meliputi skala yang luas.
Berikut ini hanya akan dibahas beberapa <b><span style="background: #FFFF66;">bioma</span></b>
utama yaitu:</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<b><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1. <span style="background: #FFFF66;">Bioma</span> Gurun dan
Setengah Gurun</span></b></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEipLv0X75vdzjuhYSL7IO_FqbVAbYT7Bd4c_AqqpA7FIPFrodyvcuveLWROLn4H9CGAK0QsicJr8tY9Gz0KUDxTxfvq-0445rwXJh9lRB83MNo16NEulf52MDYHS-hAwM1WEwvK8DQ6Hls/s1600/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="211" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEipLv0X75vdzjuhYSL7IO_FqbVAbYT7Bd4c_AqqpA7FIPFrodyvcuveLWROLn4H9CGAK0QsicJr8tY9Gz0KUDxTxfvq-0445rwXJh9lRB83MNo16NEulf52MDYHS-hAwM1WEwvK8DQ6Hls/s320/1.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<b><span style="background: #FFFF66; color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Bioma</span></b><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> gurun dan setengah gurun
banyak ditemukan di Amerika Utara, Afrika Utara, Australia dan Asia Barat.</span></div>
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<i><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ciri-ciri:</span></i><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
<ol start="1" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: #cc6600; line-height: normal; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Curah
hujan sangat rendah, <u>+</u> 25 cm/tahun </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: #cc6600; line-height: normal; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Kecepatan
penguapan air lebih cepat dari presipitasi </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: #cc6600; line-height: normal; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Kelembaban
udara sangat rendah </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: #cc6600; line-height: normal; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Perbedaan
suhu siang haridenganmalamharisangattinggi(siangdapat mencapai 45 C, malam
dapat turun sampai 0 C) </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: #cc6600; line-height: normal; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Tanah
sangat tandus karena tidak mampu menyimpan air </span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<i><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Lingkungan biotik:</span></i><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">- Flora: tumbuhan yang tumbuh adalah tumbuhan yang dapat <br />
</span><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">beradaptasi
dengan daerah kering (tumbuhan serofit). </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">- Fauna: hewan besar yang hidup di gurun umumnya yang mampu <br />
</span><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">menyimpan
air, misalnya unta, sedang untuk hewan-hewan kecil<br />
</span><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">misalnya
kadal, ular, tikus, semut, umumnya hanya aktif hidup pada <br />
</span><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">pagi
hari, pada siang hari yang terik mereka hidup pada lubang-lubang.<br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" />
<br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" />
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<b><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2. <span style="background: #FFFF66;">Bioma</span> Padang Rumput</span></b></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEizpEQyPlWCNvMoGGTy_1_sMrjgZqbkh6M_OWM15-57RGE0XeCGEAGQqRIPIzPTLhAYppxxWGMe42N713XWdG_SExLZbqCEEcM-UkyT88Jwxs4Xxu_cU8CVZkbr7f9tFdBvf9yXoEmrIt8/s1600/2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="183" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEizpEQyPlWCNvMoGGTy_1_sMrjgZqbkh6M_OWM15-57RGE0XeCGEAGQqRIPIzPTLhAYppxxWGMe42N713XWdG_SExLZbqCEEcM-UkyT88Jwxs4Xxu_cU8CVZkbr7f9tFdBvf9yXoEmrIt8/s320/2.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<b><span style="background: #FFFF66; color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Bioma</span></b><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> padang rumput membentang
mulai dari daerah tropis sampai dengan daerah beriklim sedang, seperti Hongaria,
Rusia Selatan, Asia Tengah, Amerika Selatan, Australia.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<i><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ciri-ciri:</span></i><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
<ol start="1" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: #cc6600; line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Curah
hujan antara 25 - 50 cm/tahun, di beberapa daerah padang rumput curah
hajannya dapat mencapai 100 cm/tahun. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: #cc6600; line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Curah
hujan yang relatif rendah turun secara tidak teratur. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: #cc6600; line-height: normal; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Turunnya
hujan yang tidak teratur tersebut menyebabkan porositas dan drainase
kurang baik sehingga tumbuh-tumbuhan sukar mengambil air. </span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<i><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Lingkungan biotik:</span></i><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">- Flora: tumbuhan yang mampu beradaptasi dengan daerah dengan <br />
</span><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">porositas
dan drainase kurang baik adalah rumput, meskipun ada pula </span><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">tumbuhan
lain yang hidup selain rumput, tetapi karena mereka <br />
</span><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">merupakan
vegetasi yang dominan maka disebut padang rumput. Nama </span><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">padang
rumput bermacam-macam seperti stepa di Rusia Selatan, <br />
</span><b><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">puzta </span></b><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">di
Hongaria, <b>prairi </b>di Amerika Utara dan <b>pampa </b>di Argentina. <br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" />
<br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" />
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">- Fauna: bison dan kuda liar (mustang) di Amerika, gajah dan
jerapah di </span><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Afrika,
domba dan kanguru diAustralia.<br />
</span><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Karnivora:
singa, srigala, anjing liar, cheetah.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<b><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3. <span style="background: #FFFF66;">Bioma</span> Sabana</span></b></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhG3c-tZW2i65StHev31qFwdcvwpMnoVO3GA6nT64oYZ5spyR2WjZEzyePtaAyjA8rrs79W3vRVxcEx0f__4GuI5GXGynnI6KfzOnmMUVyKqgxdq5pgIXGXUgp3FT_cJB7GZrgh1TO_n8k/s1600/3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="202" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhG3c-tZW2i65StHev31qFwdcvwpMnoVO3GA6nT64oYZ5spyR2WjZEzyePtaAyjA8rrs79W3vRVxcEx0f__4GuI5GXGynnI6KfzOnmMUVyKqgxdq5pgIXGXUgp3FT_cJB7GZrgh1TO_n8k/s320/3.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<b><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></b><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=6449829783435488555" name="Sabana"></a><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<b><span style="background: #FFFF66; color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Bioma</span></b><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> sabana adalah padang
rumput dengan diselingi oleh gerombolan pepohonan. Berdasarkan jenis tumbuhan
yang menyusunnya, sabana dibedakan menjadi dua, yaitu <b>sabana murni dan
sabana campuran.</b> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<b><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">- Sabana murni </span></b><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">: bila pohon-pohon yang
menyusunnya hanya terdiri <br />
</span><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">atas
satu jenis tumbuhan saja.<br />
<b>- Sabana campuran</b> : bila pohon-pohon penyusunnya terdiri dari <br />
</span><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">campuran
berjenis-jenis pohon.<br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" />
<br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" />
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<b><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4. <span style="background: #FFFF66;">Bioma</span> Hutan Tropis</span></b></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjH7bGLJqq5J3CcnplUctcRDk-ZsNbnXrZLZx9WsGEhzKxYg2OEP7sLcLYS524mpvvAz6d0rz1Yt05hjGwiiprc8MmWcyFhag076yDgif9HhIjmbkZtcdG2aFN8gmBbuBEPkGLWCj1YQKQ/s1600/4.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="222" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjH7bGLJqq5J3CcnplUctcRDk-ZsNbnXrZLZx9WsGEhzKxYg2OEP7sLcLYS524mpvvAz6d0rz1Yt05hjGwiiprc8MmWcyFhag076yDgif9HhIjmbkZtcdG2aFN8gmBbuBEPkGLWCj1YQKQ/s320/4.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<b><span style="background: #FFFF66; color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Bioma</span></b><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> hutan tropis merupakan <b><span style="background: #FFFF66;">bioma</span></b> yang memiliki keanekaragaman jenis
tumbuhan dan hewan yang paling tinggi. Meliputi daerah aliran sungai
Amazone-Orinaco, Amerika Tengah, sebagian besar daerah Asia Tenggara dan Papua
Nugini, dan lembah Kongo di Afrika. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<i><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ciri-ciri:</span></i><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
<ol start="1" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: #cc6600; line-height: normal; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Curah
hajannya tinggi, merata sepanjang tahun, yaitu antara 200 - 225 cm/tahun. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: #cc6600; line-height: normal; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Matahari
bersinar sepanjang tahun. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: #cc6600; line-height: normal; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Dari
bulan satu ke bulan yang lain perubahan suhunya relatif kecil. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: #cc6600; line-height: normal; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Di
bawah kanopi atau tudung pohon, gelap sepanjang hari, sehingga tidak ada
perubahan suhu antara siang dan malam hari. </span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">- Flora: pada biorna hutan tropis terdapat beratus-ratus spesies
<br />
</span><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">tumbuhan.
Pohon-pohon utama dapat mencapai ketinggian 20 - 40 m, </span><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">dengan
cabang-cabang berdaun lebat sehingga membentuk suatu <br />
</span><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">tudung
atau kanopi.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Tumbuhan
khas yang dijumpai adalah <b>liana dan epifit. </b>Liana adalah <br />
</span><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">tumbuhan
yang menjalar di permukaan hutan, contoh: rotan. Epifit <br />
</span><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">adalah
tumbuhan yang menempel pada batang-batang pohon, dan <br />
</span><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">tidak
merugikan pohon tersebut, contoh: Anggrek, paku Sarang <br />
</span><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Burung.<br />
<br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" />
<br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" />
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">- Fauna: di daerah tudung yang cukup sinar matahari, pada siang
hari <br />
</span><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">hidup
hewan-hewan yang bersifat<b> diurnal </b>yaitu hewan yang aktif pada </span><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">siang
hari, di daerah bawah kanopi dan daerah dasar hidup hewan-<br />
</span><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">hewan
yang bersifat <b>nokfurnal </b>yaitu hewan yang aktif pada malam <br />
</span><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">hari,
misalnya: burung hantu, babi hutan,kucing hutan, macan tutul. <br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" />
<br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" />
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<b><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5. Hutan Musim</span></b><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=6449829783435488555" name="Musim"></a><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Di daerah tropis, selain hutan tropis terdapat pula hutan musim.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<i><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ciri tumbuhan yang membentuk formasi hutan musim:</span></i><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pohon-pohonnya tahan dari kekeringan dan termasuk tumbuhan
tropofit, artinya mampu beradaptasi terhadap keadaan kering dan keadaan basah
pada saat musim kemarau (kering), daunnya meranggas, sebaliknya saat musim
hujan, daunnya lebat. Hutan musim biasa diberi nama sesuai dengan tumbuhan yang
dominan, misalnya: hutan jati, hutan angsana. Di Indonesia, hutan musim dapat
ditemukan di daerah Jawa Tengah dan Jawa Timur. Fauna yang banyak ditemukan
rusa, babi hutan, harimau.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<b><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">6. Hutan Lumut</span></b></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg1itVDWMXrdCxPEtxWzUQX-NVNv3BZ8jgAf2AOEge0y5_Sz9S0qh8X102S_0M_9IsmKRXkGECubrIYfOVui3jJ3BBkskW8CHgeEmLkSn_B4nAciQhoLdNq6jQ0NbJfhN-qE2I91tMLqRo/s1600/6.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="204" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg1itVDWMXrdCxPEtxWzUQX-NVNv3BZ8jgAf2AOEge0y5_Sz9S0qh8X102S_0M_9IsmKRXkGECubrIYfOVui3jJ3BBkskW8CHgeEmLkSn_B4nAciQhoLdNq6jQ0NbJfhN-qE2I91tMLqRo/s320/6.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Hutan lumut banyak ditemukan di lereng gunung atau pegunungan
yang terletak pada ketinggian di atas batas kondensasi uap air. Disebut hutan
lumut karena vegetasi yang dominan adalah tumbuhan lumut. Lumut yang tumbuh
tidak hanya di permakean tanah dan bebatuan, tetapi mereka pun menutupi
batang-batang pohon berkayu. Jadi pada hutan lumut, yang tumbuh tidak hanya
lumut saja, melainkan hutan yang banyak pepohonannya yang tertutup oleh lumut.
Sepanjang hari hampir selalu hujan karena kelembaban yang tinggi dan suhu
rendah menyebabkan timbulnya embun terus-menerus.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<b><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">7. <span style="background: #FFFF66;">Bioma</span> Hutan Gugur (Deciduous
Forest)</span></b></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiL4EJrSMWR9V4kw2XaotZ0xMtkemuUqs1PeWupVQ0Q_aFSs5Rn_kLqHaVrExMn-74HO_6vhXY44djPbeVcZpX_58XzkbhKynkqunEhkD_XU3C5cHaRVo3XyxCAg6CNtWzKMIAUFH8FmVw/s1600/7.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiL4EJrSMWR9V4kw2XaotZ0xMtkemuUqs1PeWupVQ0Q_aFSs5Rn_kLqHaVrExMn-74HO_6vhXY44djPbeVcZpX_58XzkbhKynkqunEhkD_XU3C5cHaRVo3XyxCAg6CNtWzKMIAUFH8FmVw/s320/7.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ciri khas <b><span style="background: #FFFF66;">bioma</span></b>
hutan gugur adalah tumbuhannya sewaktu musim dingin, daun-daunnya meranggas. <b><span style="background: #FFFF66;">Bioma</span></b> ini dapat dijumpai di Amerika
Serikat, Eropa Barat, Asia Timur, dan Chili.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<i><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ciri-ciri:</span></i><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">- Curah hujan merata sepanjang tahun, 75 - 100 cm/tahun.<br />
- Mempunyai 4 musim: musim panas, musim dingin, musim gugur dan <br />
</span><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">musim
semi<br />
- Keanekaragaman jenis tumbuhan lebih rendah daripada <b><span style="background: #FFFF66;">bioma</span></b> hutan <br />
</span><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">tropis.<br />
<br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" />
<br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" />
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Musim panas pada <b><span style="background: #FFFF66;">bioma</span></b>
hutan gugur, energi radiasi matahari yang diterima cukup tinggi, demikian pula
dengan presipitasi (curah hujan) dan kelembaban. Kondisi ini menyebabkan
pohon-pohon tinggi tumbuh dengan baik, tetapi cahaya masih dapat menembus ke
dasar, karena dedaunan tidak begitu lebat tumbuhnya. Konsumen yang ada di
daerah ini adalah serangga, burung, bajing, dan racoon yaitu hewan sebangsa
luwak/musang.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pada saat menjelang musim dingin, radiasi sinar matahari mulai
berkurang, subu mulai turun. Tumbuhan mulai sulit mendapatkan air sehingga daun
menjadi merah, coklat akhirnya gugur, sehingga musim itu disebut musim gugur.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pada saat musim dingin, tumbuhan gundul dan tidak melakukan
kegiatan fotosentesis. Beberapa jenis hewan melakukan hibernasi (tidur pada
musim dingin). Menjelang musim panas, suhu naik, salju mencair, tumbuhan mulai
berdaun kembali (bersemi) sehingga disebut musim semi.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<b><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">8. <span style="background: #FFFF66;">Bioma</span> Hutan Taiga /
Hutan Homogen</span></b><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=6449829783435488555" name="Taiga"></a><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<b><span style="background: #FFFF66; color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Bioma</span></b><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> ini kebanyakan terdapat
di daerah antara subtropika dengan daerah kutub, seperti di daerah Skandinavia,
Rusia, Siberia, Alaska, Kanada.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<i><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ciri-ciri <b><span style="background: #FFFF66;">bioma</span></b>
hutan taiga:</span></i><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
<ol start="1" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: #cc6600; line-height: normal; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo4; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Perbedaan
antara suhu musim panas dan musim dingin cukup tinggi, pada musim panas
suhu tinggi, pada musim dingin suhu sangat rendah. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: #cc6600; line-height: normal; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo4; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pertumbuhan
tanaman terjadi pada musim panas yang berlangsung antara 3 sampai 6 bulan.
</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: #cc6600; line-height: normal; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo4; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Flora
khasnya adalah pohon berdaun jarum/pohon konifer, contoh pohon konifer
adalah <i>Pinus merkusii</i> (pinus). Keanekaragaman tumbuhan di <b><span style="background: #FFFF66;">bioma</span></b> taiga rendah, vegetasinya
nyaris seragam, dominan pohon-pohon konifer karena nyaris seragam,
hutannya disebut hutan homogen. Tumbuhannya hijau sepanjang tahun,
meskipun dalam musim dingin dengan suhu sangat rendah. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: #cc6600; line-height: normal; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo4; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Fauna
yang terdapat di daerah ini adalah beruang hitam, ajak, srigala dan
burung-burung yang bermigrasi kedaerah tropis bila musim dingin tiba.
Beberapa jenis hewan seperti tupai dan mammalia kecil lainnya maupun
berhibernasi pada saat musim dingin. </span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<b><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">9. <span style="background: #FFFF66;">Bioma</span> Hutan <span style="background: #A0FFFF;">Tundra</span></span></b><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=6449829783435488555" name="Tundra"></a><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<b><span style="background: #FFFF66; color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Bioma</span></b><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> ini terletak di kawasan
lingkungan Kutub Utara sehingga iklimnya adalah iklim kutub. Istilah <b><span style="background: #A0FFFF;">tundra</span></b> berarti dataran tanpa pohon,
vegetasinya didominasi oleh lumut dan lumut kerak, vegetasi lainnya adalah
rumput-rumputan dan sedikit tumbuhan berbunga berukuran kecil.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<i><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ciri-ciri: </span></i><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
<ol start="1" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: #cc6600; line-height: normal; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo5; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Mendapat
sedikit energi radiasi matahari, musim dingin sangat panjang dapat
berlangsung selama 9 bulan dengan suasana gelap. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: #cc6600; line-height: normal; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo5; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Musim
panas berlangsung selama 3 bulan, pada masa inilah vegetasi mengalami
pertumbuhan. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: #cc6600; line-height: normal; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo5; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Fauna
khas <b><span style="background: #FFFF66;">bioma</span></b> <b><span style="background: #A0FFFF;">tundra</span></b> adalah <b>"Muskoxem"
</b>(bison berhulu tebal) dan <b>Reindeer/Caribou </b>(rusa kutub). </span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<b><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">10. Hutan Bakau / Mangrove</span></b></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjEKAl4RFnKn1DhzWGBK76QyMRx1qsWEigtMF0e63HgPKnC1JaQ0rlU5jBGTDhyphenhyphenX9IeKCD9AUvRQBU3WPzJInlECsRR7dOJeyjORgHgk_dVFEodhW2A8JvIErJQtOmxlr4GB2ggY6nD1oA/s1600/10.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="212" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjEKAl4RFnKn1DhzWGBK76QyMRx1qsWEigtMF0e63HgPKnC1JaQ0rlU5jBGTDhyphenhyphenX9IeKCD9AUvRQBU3WPzJInlECsRR7dOJeyjORgHgk_dVFEodhW2A8JvIErJQtOmxlr4GB2ggY6nD1oA/s320/10.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Hutan bakau/mangrove banyak ditemukan di sepanjang pantai yang
landai di daerah tropik dan subtropik. Tumbuhan yang dominan adalah pohon bakau
<i>(Rhizophora sp), </i>sehingga nama lainnya adalah hutan bakau, selain pohon
bakau ditemukan pula pohon Kayu Api <i>(Avicennia) </i>dan pohon Bogem <i>(Bruguiera).</i></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<i><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ciri-ciri:</span></i><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
<ol start="1" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: #cc6600; line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo6; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Kadar
garam air dan tanahnya tinggi. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: #cc6600; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo6; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Kadar
O2 air dan tanahaya rendah.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: #cc6600; line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo6; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Saat
air pasang, lingkungannya banjir, saat air surut lingkungannya becek dan
herlumpur. </span></li>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Dengan kondisi kadar garam tinggi, menyebabkan tumbuhan bakau
sukar menyerap air meskipun lingkungan sekitar banyak air, keadaan ini dikenal
dengan nama kekeringan fisiologis. Untuk menyesuaikan dengan lingkungan
tersebut tumbuhan bakau memiliki dedaunan yang tebal dan kaku, berlapiskan
kutikula sehingga dapat mencegah terjadinya penguapan yang terlalu besar. </span></div>
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<span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Untuk menyesuaikan diri dengan kadar O2 rendah, tumbuhan bakau
memiliki akar nafas yang berfungsi menyerap O2 langsung dari udara. Agar
individu baru tidak dihanyutkan oleh arus air akibat adanya pasang naik dan
pasang surut terutama pada bakau kita dapati suatu fenomena yang dikenal dengan
nama VIVIPARI yang artinya adalah berkecambahnya biji selagi biji masih
terdapat dalam buah, belum tanggal dari pohon induknya, dapat membentuk akar
yang kadang-kadang dapat mencapai 1 meter panjangnya.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Jika biji yang sudah berkecambah tadi lepas dari pohon induknya
maka dengan akar yang panjang tersebut dapat menancap cukup dalam di dalam
lumpur, sehingga tidak akan terganggu dengan arus air yang terjadi pada gerakan
pasang dan surut.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Hutan bakau di Indonesia terdapat di sepanjang pantai timur
Sumatra, pantai barat dan selatan Kalimantan dan sepanjang pantai Irian, di
Pulau Jawa hutan bakau yang agak luas masih tersisa di sekitar Segara Anakan
dekat Cilacap yang merupakan muara sungai Citanduy.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Jenis-jenis hewan yang dapat ditemukan dalam lingkungan hutan
bakau terutama adalah ikan dan hewan-hewan melata (buaya, biawak) dan
burung-burung yang bersarang di atas pohon-pohon bakau.</span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Organisasi Kehidupan Tingkat Ekosistem dan Bioma (sumber 2)</span></b><span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: #cc6600; font-family: "Bookman Old Style","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Anda sudah paham arti dari populasi dan komunitas, lalu apakah
artinya ekosistem dan <b><span style="background: #FFFF66;">bioma</span></b>? Sebelum
masuk ke dalam pengertian ekosistem, masih ingatkah Anda apa artinya lingkungan
biotik dan lingkungan abiotik? Ya betul, lingkungan biotik adalah bagian
lingkungan yang berupa makhluk-makhluk hidup (fungi, tumbuhan, hewan, dan
monera). Dan lingkungan abiotik adalah bagian lingkungan yang berupa benda tak
hidup (contohnya air, tanah, udara, cahaya, pH, suhu dan iklim). Menurut Anda
apakah lingkungan biotik saling berpengaruh dengan lingkungan abiotik? Ya
betul, memang kedua komponen tersebut saling mempengaruhi. Coba berikan sebuah
contoh mengenai pengaruh lingkungan abiotik terhadap lingkungan biotik, dan
sebuah contoh pengaruh lingkungan biotik terhadap lingkungan abiotik. Jika Anda
dapat memberikan contoh-contoh seperti yang diminta tadi dengan benar, berarti
pemikiran Anda sudah masuk ke dalam pengertian ekosistem.<br />
<br />
Memang ekosistem dapat diartikan sebagai hubungan timbal balik atau interaksi
antara organisme dengan lingkungan abiotiknya. Definisi yang lebih tepat
mengenai Ekosistem adalah tingkatan organisasi kehidupan yang mencakup
organisme dan lingkungan tak hidup, dimana kedua komponen tersebut saling
mempengaruhi dan berinteraksi.<br />
<br />
Pada ekosistem, setiap organisme mempunyai suatu peranan, ada yang berperan
sebagai produsen, konsumen ataupun dekomposer. Produsen terdiri dari
organisme-organisme berklorofil (autotrof) yang mampu memproduksi zat-zat
organik dari zat-zat anorganik (melalui fotosintesis). Zat-zat organik ini
kemudian dimanfaatkan oleh organisme-organisme heterotrof (manusia dan hewan)
yang berperan sebagai konsumen. <br />
<br />
Sebagai konsumen, hewan ada yang memakan produsen secara langsung, tetapi ada
pula yang mendapat makanan secara tidak langsung dari produsen dengan memakan
konsumen lainnya. Karenanya konsumen dibedakan menjadi beberapa macam yaitu
konsumen I, konsumen II, dan seterusnya hingga konsumen puncak. Konsumen II,
III, dan seterusnya tidak memakan produsen secara langsung tetapi tetap
tergantung pada produsen, karena sumber makanan konsumen I adalah produsen.
Peranan makan dan dimakan di dalam ekosistem akan membentuk rantai makanan
bahkan jaring-jaring makanan. Perhatikan contoh sebuah rantai makanan ini: daun
berwarna hijau (Produsen) --> ulat (Konsumen I) --> ayam (Konsumen II)
--> musang (Konsumen III) --> macan (Konsumen IV/Puncak). Coba Anda buat
sebuah rantai makanan seperti contoh, Anda pernah melakukannya sewaktu di SMP
bukan? <br />
<br />
Dalam ekosistem rantai makanan jarang berlangsung dalam urutan linier seperti
di atas, tetapi membentuk jaring-jaring makanan (food web). Perhatikan contoh
jaring-jaring makanan pada gambar 11 berikut ini.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11909319886329515670noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6449829783435488555.post-27917767586651379082012-12-19T01:48:00.000-08:002012-12-19T01:48:14.311-08:00binomial nomenclature<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<b><span style="color: #984806; font-family: "High Tower Text","serif"; font-size: 18.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">Binomial Nomenclature</span></b></div>
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nomenclature identifies each species by a scientific name of two words, Latin
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species. The scientific name of the white oak is <i>Quercus alba,</i> while red
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genus— <i>Quercus</i> is the name of all oaks—but the entire binomial applies
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and species names are always italicized when printed; the names of other taxa
(families, etc.) are not. When a species (or several species of the same genus)
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as in <i>Q. alba.</i> Subspecies are indicated by a trinomial; for example, the
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names are that they are accepted by speakers of all languages, that each name
applies only to one species, and that each species has only one name. This
avoids the confusion that often arises from the use of a common name to
designate different things in different places (for example, see <a href="http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/sci/A0817131.html"><span style="color: #4f6228; mso-themecolor: accent3; mso-themeshade: 128;">elk</span></a>), or from the
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international organizations for the determination of the rules of nomenclature
and the recording of specific names, one for zoology and one for botany.
According to the rules they have established, the first name to be published
(from the work of Linnaeus on) is the correct name of any organism unless it is
reclassified in such a way as to affect that name (for example, if it is moved
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<br /></div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11909319886329515670noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6449829783435488555.post-86943120915139696592012-12-17T22:00:00.000-08:002012-12-17T22:00:01.592-08:00makanan penyebab sakit kepala<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgeM8pzpjeSWzMdE62vfOFLJ9qRnL2K_JKnRaAtTz6EDB-8XBlonDhvp6XGMCRXr349UEKELiJ8pRukJCVr2-F-3PRGQVUQh9u5qIzfQ5KYt2bV-5ZBa6nNDNftJK61BMWhjh_T2guPdBg/s1600/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="212" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgeM8pzpjeSWzMdE62vfOFLJ9qRnL2K_JKnRaAtTz6EDB-8XBlonDhvp6XGMCRXr349UEKELiJ8pRukJCVr2-F-3PRGQVUQh9u5qIzfQ5KYt2bV-5ZBa6nNDNftJK61BMWhjh_T2guPdBg/s320/1.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="first">
<br /></div>
<div class="first">
<span style="color: #948a54; font-family: Harrington; font-size: 14pt;">Sakit kepala yang menjengkelkan
bisa dipicu oleh makanan yang dikonsumsi.</span></div>
<span style="color: #948a54; font-family: Harrington; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-themecolor: background2; mso-themeshade: 128;">Sayangnya, banyak yang tahu
jenis makanan yang seperti apa bisa menyebabkan sakit kepala maupun migrain.</span><br />
<span style="color: #948a54; font-family: Harrington; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-themecolor: background2; mso-themeshade: 128;">Simak penjelasannya berikut ini.</span><br />
<div style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #948a54; font-family: Harrington; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Harrington; mso-fareast-font-family: Harrington; mso-themecolor: background2; mso-themeshade: 128;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">A.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><strong><span style="color: #948a54; font-family: Harrington; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-themecolor: background2; mso-themeshade: 128;">Minuman alkohol</span></strong><span style="color: #948a54; font-family: Harrington; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-themecolor: background2; mso-themeshade: 128;">. </span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgr0TbUfjC8bM1Io5slpQA-XyBS5WInIyslKAvlwz7cRqMETtMpNFJc9q0r_d85g-u2HNfNDgNsHQwiE40MlKKgb-1YKVzvv4pIXtmRZfeIQzvEzSyRh7iVLsEHSwuLSsPbZS_BX2Xx6_4/s1600/2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="198" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgr0TbUfjC8bM1Io5slpQA-XyBS5WInIyslKAvlwz7cRqMETtMpNFJc9q0r_d85g-u2HNfNDgNsHQwiE40MlKKgb-1YKVzvv4pIXtmRZfeIQzvEzSyRh7iVLsEHSwuLSsPbZS_BX2Xx6_4/s320/2.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<div style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span style="color: #948a54; font-family: Harrington; font-size: 14pt;"> Sulfida yang digunakan sebagai pengawet dalam
red wine menjadi salah satu penyebab migrain. Selain itu, minuman beralkohol
menyebabkan peningkatan aliran darah ke otak dan juga memicu terjadinya
dehidrasi. Keduanya menjadi penyebab sakit kepala.</span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #948a54; font-family: Harrington; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Harrington; mso-fareast-font-family: Harrington; mso-themecolor: background2; mso-themeshade: 128;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">B.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><strong><span style="color: #948a54; font-family: Harrington; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-themecolor: background2; mso-themeshade: 128;">Kopi</span></strong><span style="color: #948a54; font-family: Harrington; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-themecolor: background2; mso-themeshade: 128;">. </span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhwihMY5AgMN41nWPjCSxM2Y-7zHWPtoFEAmTGMAOvrWDNZjxaSZB-rpZkNnt4joAYyHP59SB6HW_G2O22Jel81dxurTZn_3geF3BAuajCGioLN5mj7MkVBCEt8NxWsPhzxa_Gpqj6UZt0/s1600/3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhwihMY5AgMN41nWPjCSxM2Y-7zHWPtoFEAmTGMAOvrWDNZjxaSZB-rpZkNnt4joAYyHP59SB6HW_G2O22Jel81dxurTZn_3geF3BAuajCGioLN5mj7MkVBCEt8NxWsPhzxa_Gpqj6UZt0/s320/3.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<div style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span style="color: #948a54; font-family: Harrington; font-size: 14pt;">Jika Anda tidur kemudian bangun dengan sakit kepala,
mungkin tubuh Anda memiliki kafein berlebihan. Meminum kopi diperbolehkan
asalkan dalam jumlah wajar.</span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #948a54; font-family: Harrington; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Harrington; mso-fareast-font-family: Harrington; mso-themecolor: background2; mso-themeshade: 128;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">C.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><strong><span style="color: #948a54; font-family: Harrington; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-themecolor: background2; mso-themeshade: 128;">Keju</span></strong><span style="color: #948a54; font-family: Harrington; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-themecolor: background2; mso-themeshade: 128;">.</span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgs2NPmsDmx-EziCfdJ-k_az0QKWQFjkE0f98mECgudnvI2398EuLYw1z-hyyWVOgwp9bpXh3uggRfPYcnMXbOObmx9slZ-YsOwUDpmzbGopdywbyomNDzPFKZFCz03sagxLaMi6vu1x0Q/s1600/4.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgs2NPmsDmx-EziCfdJ-k_az0QKWQFjkE0f98mECgudnvI2398EuLYw1z-hyyWVOgwp9bpXh3uggRfPYcnMXbOObmx9slZ-YsOwUDpmzbGopdywbyomNDzPFKZFCz03sagxLaMi6vu1x0Q/s1600/4.jpeg" /></a></div>
<div style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span style="color: #948a54; font-family: Harrington; font-size: 14pt;"> Keju mengandung enzim yang disebut tyramine, asam amino
yang memicu tekanan darah tinggi dan menyebabkan sakit kepala. Tyramine
terbentuk dari proses fregmentasi. Semakin lama masa fregmentasi, maka semakin
banyak kandungan tyramine-nya.</span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #948a54; font-family: Harrington; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Harrington; mso-fareast-font-family: Harrington; mso-themecolor: background2; mso-themeshade: 128;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">D.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><strong><span style="color: #948a54; font-family: Harrington; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-themecolor: background2; mso-themeshade: 128;">Es krim</span></strong><span style="color: #948a54; font-family: Harrington; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-themecolor: background2; mso-themeshade: 128;">. </span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgImsoWrqu0kxaFyLqXlrj6h4SVXt57X2YOpUuQksLdAZCuzV77E1ikWRAebpYT6Q74E_WHEIXMbhSpwwoV8Y9bDgB3avRYrLAK0SUCL_kIMBDRg4O8mV3NJVbFLMLX-pglW-yU6-wjkE0/s1600/5.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgImsoWrqu0kxaFyLqXlrj6h4SVXt57X2YOpUuQksLdAZCuzV77E1ikWRAebpYT6Q74E_WHEIXMbhSpwwoV8Y9bDgB3avRYrLAK0SUCL_kIMBDRg4O8mV3NJVbFLMLX-pglW-yU6-wjkE0/s1600/5.jpeg" /></a></div>
<div style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span style="color: #948a54; font-family: Harrington; font-size: 14pt;">Sakit kepala juga bisa timbul karena makanan dingin. Hal
ini dipicu oleh perubahan mendadak pada aliran darah di otak karena suhu dingin
mematikan saraf tertentu yang berfungsi mengontrol berapa banyak darah mengalir
ke kepala.</span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<b><span style="color: #948a54; font-family: Harrington; font-size: 14pt;"><span>E.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><strong><span style="color: #948a54; font-family: Harrington; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-themecolor: background2; mso-themeshade: 128;">Coklat.</span></strong><span style="color: #948a54; font-family: Harrington; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-themecolor: background2; mso-themeshade: 128;"> </span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiEChVoUokmigVKPx42abX7T0QvwhbAyhgK-7VRlGDp2u30tEKu25nUR-iGPp0MqcLrubEV0ce_A7IXUHmDDva77Cgc2jqZac_mIuPt37nCoQVSyoLSgzqGLrv5F4XH1WhIKEoCDnixMUQ/s1600/6.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiEChVoUokmigVKPx42abX7T0QvwhbAyhgK-7VRlGDp2u30tEKu25nUR-iGPp0MqcLrubEV0ce_A7IXUHmDDva77Cgc2jqZac_mIuPt37nCoQVSyoLSgzqGLrv5F4XH1WhIKEoCDnixMUQ/s1600/6.jpeg" /></a></div>
<div style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span style="color: #948a54; font-family: Harrington; font-size: 14pt;">Penelitian yang dipresentasikan dalam International
Headache Society mengungkapkan kakao dapat menyebabkan migrain. Kandungan <em><span style="font-family: Harrington;">Phenylethylamine</span></em> dan <em><span style="font-family: Harrington;">theobromine </span></em>dalam coklat menyebabkan
pelebaran pembuluh darah sehingga rasa sakit di kepala bisa muncul sesaat
setelah Anda mengonsumsinya.</span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #948a54; font-family: Harrington; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Harrington; mso-fareast-font-family: Harrington; mso-themecolor: background2; mso-themeshade: 128;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">F.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><strong><span style="color: #948a54; font-family: Harrington; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-themecolor: background2; mso-themeshade: 128;">Pisang</span></strong><span style="color: #948a54; font-family: Harrington; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-themecolor: background2; mso-themeshade: 128;">. </span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi5tonmsA79YQFa1exeP1oOTizDqCNckT80Do90FwkEWYeKpw527hm9XOHhazURo8AvPXqFI2QcyXxgXyQHSbIfzT9-p97PeH3Yr3ZbABcFP6QJ_1zSSu8Wl55F7repabBDwJM3XgBqGbU/s1600/7.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi5tonmsA79YQFa1exeP1oOTizDqCNckT80Do90FwkEWYeKpw527hm9XOHhazURo8AvPXqFI2QcyXxgXyQHSbIfzT9-p97PeH3Yr3ZbABcFP6QJ_1zSSu8Wl55F7repabBDwJM3XgBqGbU/s1600/7.jpeg" /></a></div>
<div style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span style="color: #948a54; font-family: Harrington; font-size: 14pt;">Pisang juga
memiliki tyramine dalam lapisan serat terluar kulitnya. Jadi, usahakan membuka
kulit pisang hingga serat-serat kulitnya tidak menempel di buahnya.</span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #948a54; font-family: Harrington; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Harrington; mso-fareast-font-family: Harrington; mso-themecolor: background2; mso-themeshade: 128;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">G.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><strong><span style="color: #948a54; font-family: Harrington; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-themecolor: background2; mso-themeshade: 128;">MSG</span></strong><span style="color: #948a54; font-family: Harrington; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-themecolor: background2; mso-themeshade: 128;">. </span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEidnuq5PfIcP2M7M_AI5vdbaxjONty_H1K3bvhHVDoX1yfX1RwJBEUeUOIUd61E_ctpxK4x0IxqfF4cB7vow2etE7AW_yXrvfhM-5HHXkts6GJn5S2UqECHeO-6ZR2UNmu2uoqIZ2Cm3Kk/s1600/8.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEidnuq5PfIcP2M7M_AI5vdbaxjONty_H1K3bvhHVDoX1yfX1RwJBEUeUOIUd61E_ctpxK4x0IxqfF4cB7vow2etE7AW_yXrvfhM-5HHXkts6GJn5S2UqECHeO-6ZR2UNmu2uoqIZ2Cm3Kk/s1600/8.jpeg" /></a></div>
<div style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span style="color: #948a54; font-family: Harrington; font-size: 14pt;">Senyawa kimia dalam makanan, seperti nitrat, MSG, pewarna, memanis dan
zat adiktif lainnya patut dihindari. Semuanya berpotensi menimbulkan rasa nyeri
di kepala Anda bahkan diare. Selain itu, kurangi makanan yang diawetkan atau
diasinkan, seperti buah-buahan kering, sup kalengan, hingga selai.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
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<div align="center" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="color: #7030a0; font-family: "Imprint MT Shadow"; font-size: 18.0pt;">Phylum Annelida</span></div>
<div style="color: #d9ead3; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Imprint MT Shadow"; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128;">The <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">annelids</span> (also called "ringed
worms"), formally called <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Annelida</span>
(from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin" title="Latin"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Latin</span></a> <i>anellus</i> "little ring"),
are a large <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">phylum</span></a> of segmented <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worm" title="Worm"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">worms</span></a>, with over 22,000 modern species including <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ragworm" title="Ragworm"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">ragworms</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthworm" title="Earthworm"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">earthworms</span></a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leech" title="Leech"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">leeches</span></a>. They are found in marine environments from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_zone" title="Tidal zone"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">tidal zones</span></a> to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">hydrothermal vents</span></a>, in freshwater, and in
moist terrestrial environments.They are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic,
coelomate organisms.They have parapodia for locomotion. Although most textbooks
still use the traditional division into <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polychaete" title="Polychaete"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">polychaetes</span></a> (almost all marine), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oligochaete" title="Oligochaete"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">oligochaetes</span></a> (which include earthworms) and
leech-like species, research since 1997 has radically changed this scheme,
viewing leeches as a sub-group of oligochaetes and oligochaetes as a sub-group
of polychaetes. In addition, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pogonophora_%28worm%29" title="Pogonophora (worm)"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Pogonophora</span></a>,
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echiura" title="Echiura"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Echiura</span></a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sipuncula" title="Sipuncula"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Sipuncula</span></a>, previously regarded as separate
phyla, are now regarded as sub-groups of polychaetes. Annelids are considered
members of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lophotrochozoa" title="Lophotrochozoa"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Lophotrochozoa</span></a>,
a "super-phylum" of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protostome" title="Protostome"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">protostomes</span></a> that also
includes <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mollusc" title="Mollusc"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">molluscs</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brachiopod" title="Brachiopod"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">brachiopods</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flatworm" title="Flatworm"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">flatworms</span></a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nemertean" title="Nemertean"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">nemerteans</span></a>.</span></div>
<div style="color: #d9ead3; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Imprint MT Shadow"; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128;">The basic annelid form
consists of multiple <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Segmentation_%28biology%29" title="Segmentation (biology)"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">segments</span></a>,
each of which has the same sets of organs and, in most polychaetes, a pair of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parapodia" title="Parapodia"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">parapodia</span></a> that many species use for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_locomotion" title="Animal locomotion"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">locomotion</span></a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septum" title="Septum"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Septa</span></a> separate the segments of many species,
but are poorly-defined or absent in some, and Echiura and Sipuncula show no
obvious signs of segmentation. In species with well-developed septa, the blood
circulates entirely within <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_vessel" title="Blood vessel"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">blood vessels</span></a>,
and the vessels in segments near the front ends of these species are often
built up with muscles to act as hearts. The septa of these species also enable
them to change the shapes of individual segments, which facilitates movement by
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peristalsis" title="Peristalsis"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">peristalsis</span></a> ("ripples" that pass
along the body) or by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_undulation" title="Lateral undulation"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">undulations</span></a>
that improve the effectiveness of the parapodia. In species with incomplete
septa or none, the blood circulates through the main body cavity without any kind
of pump, and there is a wide range of locomotory techniques – some burrowing
species turn their <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharynx" title="Pharynx"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">pharynges</span></a> inside out
to drag themselves through the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">sediment</span></a>.</span></div>
<div style="color: #d9ead3; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Imprint MT Shadow"; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128;">Although many species
can reproduce <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asexual_reproduction" title="Asexual reproduction"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">asexually</span></a>
and use similar mechanisms to regenerate after severe injuries, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">sexual
reproduction</span></a> is the normal method in species whose reproduction has
been studied. The minority of living polychaetes whose reproduction and
lifecycles are known produce <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trochophore" title="Trochophore"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">trochophore</span></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larva" title="Larva"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">larvae</span></a>, which live as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">plankton</span></a> and then sink and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamorphose" title="Metamorphose"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">metamorphose</span></a> into miniature adults.
Oligochaetes are full <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermaphrodite" title="Hermaphrodite"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">hermaphrodites</span></a>
and produce a ring-like <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pupa" title="Pupa"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">cocoon</span></a> round their bodies, in which the
eggs and hatchlings are nourished until they are ready to emerge.</span></div>
<div style="color: #d9ead3; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Imprint MT Shadow"; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128;">Earthworms support
terrestrial <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">food chains</span></a> both as prey and by aerating
and enriching <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil" title="Soil"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">soil</span></a>. The burrowing of marine polychaetes,
which may constitute up to a third of all species in near-shore environments,
encourages the development of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">ecosystems</span></a> by enabling
water and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">oxygen</span></a> to penetrate the sea floor. In
addition to improving <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_fertility" title="Soil fertility"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">soil fertility</span></a>,
annelids serve humans as food and as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishing_bait" title="Fishing bait"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">bait</span></a>. Scientists observe annelids to
monitor the quality of marine and fresh water. Although <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood-letting" title="Blood-letting"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">blood-letting</span></a> is no longer in favor with
doctors, some leech species are regarded as endangered species because they
have been over-harvested for this purpose in the last few centuries. Ragworms'
jaws are now being studied by engineers as they offer an exceptional
combination of lightness and strength.</span></div>
<div style="color: #d9ead3; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Imprint MT Shadow"; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128;">Since annelids are <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soft-bodied_organisms" title="Soft-bodied organisms"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">soft-bodied</span></a>,
their fossils are rare – mostly jaws and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomineralising_polychaetes" title="Biomineralising polychaetes"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">mineralized</span></a>
tubes that some of the species secreted. Although some late <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ediacaran" title="Ediacaran"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Ediacaran</span></a> fossils may represent annelids,
the oldest known fossil that is identified with confidence comes from about <span class="nourlexpansion"><a href="http://toolserver.org/%7Everisimilus/Timeline/Timeline.php?Ma=518"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">518</span></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Million_years_ago" title="Million years ago"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">million years ago</span></a></span> in the early <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Cambrian</span></a> period. Fossils of most modern
mobile polychaete groups appeared by the end of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Carboniferous</span></a>, about <span class="nourlexpansion"><a href="http://toolserver.org/%7Everisimilus/Timeline/Timeline.php?Ma=299"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">299</span></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Million_years_ago" title="Million years ago"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">million years ago</span></a></span>. Scientists
disagree about whether some <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_fossil" title="Body fossil"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">body fossils</span></a>
from the mid <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Ordovician</span></a>, about <span class="nourlexpansion"><a href="http://toolserver.org/%7Everisimilus/Timeline/Timeline.php?Ma=472%E2%80%93461"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">472 to 461</span></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Million_years_ago" title="Million years ago"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">million years ago</span></a></span>, are the remains
of oligochaetes, and the earliest certain fossils of the group appear in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertiary" title="Tertiary"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Tertiary</span></a> period, which began <span class="nourlexpansion" style="color: #b6d7a8;"><a href="http://toolserver.org/%7Everisimilus/Timeline/Timeline.php?Ma=65"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">65</span></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Million_years_ago" title="Million years ago"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">million years ago</span></a></span><span style="color: #b6d7a8;">.</span></span></div>
<div style="color: #d9ead3;">
<span style="font-family: "Imprint MT Shadow"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128;">Class of annelida:</span></div>
<span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "Imprint MT Shadow";">1. Polychaeta</span><br />
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<br />
<div style="color: #b6d7a8; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Imprint MT Shadow"; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128;">The <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Polychaeta</span> or <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">polychaetes</span> are a class of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annelid" title="Annelid"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">annelid</span></a> worms, generally marine. Each body
segment has a pair of fleshy protrusions called <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parapodia" title="Parapodia"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">parapodia</span></a> that bear many bristles, called <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaeta" title="Chaeta"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">chaetae</span></a>, which are made of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chitin" title="Chitin"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">chitin</span></a>. Indeed, polychaetes are sometimes
referred to as <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">bristle worms</span>.
More than 10,000 species are described in this class. Common representatives
include the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lugworm" title="Lugworm"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">lugworm</span></a> (<i>Arenicola marina</i>) and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandworm" title="Sandworm"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">sandworm</span></a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clam_worm" title="Clam worm"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">clam worm</span></a> <i>Nereis</i>.</span></div>
<div style="color: #b6d7a8; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Imprint MT Shadow"; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128;">Polychaetes as a class
are robust and widespread, with species that live in the coldest ocean
temperatures of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abyssal_plain" title="Abyssal plain"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">abyssal plain</span></a>,
to forms which tolerate the extreme high temperatures near <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">hydrothermal vents</span></a>. Polychaetes occur
throughout the Earth's oceans at all depths, from forms that live as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">plankton</span></a> near the surface, to a
2–3 cm specimen (still unclassified) observed by the robot ocean probe <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nereus_%28underwater_vehicle%29" title="Nereus (underwater vehicle)"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Nereus</span></a>
at the bottom of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Challenger_Deep" title="Challenger Deep"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Challenger Deep</span></a>,
the deepest spot in the Earth's oceans.<sup id="cite_ref-1"> </sup>Only 168
species (less than 2% of all polychaetes) are known from freshwaters.</span></div>
<div style="color: #b6d7a8; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Imprint MT Shadow"; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128;">Polychaetes are
segmented worms, generally less than 10 centimetres (3.9 in) in length,
although ranging at the extremes from 1 millimetre (0.039 in) to 3 metres
(9.8 ft). They are often brightly coloured, and may be <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iridescent" title="Iridescent"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">iridescent</span></a> or even <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luminescent" title="Luminescent"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">luminescent</span></a>. Each segment bears a pair of
paddle-like and highly vascularized <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parapodia" title="Parapodia"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">parapodia</span></a>, which are used for movement
and, in many species, act as the worm's primary <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_exchange" title="Gas exchange"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">respiratory</span></a> surfaces. Bundles of bristles,
called <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Setae" title="Setae"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">setae</span></a>, project from the parapodia.</span></div>
<div style="color: #b6d7a8; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Imprint MT Shadow"; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128;">However, polychaetes
vary widely from this generalised pattern, and can display a range of different
body forms. The most generalised polychaetes are those that crawl along the
bottom, but others have adapted to many different <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">ecological niches</span></a>, including burrowing,
swimming, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelagic" title="Pelagic"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">pelagic</span></a> life, tube-dwelling or boring, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commensal" title="Commensal"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">commensalism</span></a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasite" title="Parasite"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">parasitism</span></a>, requiring various
modifications to their body structure.</span></div>
<div style="color: #b6d7a8; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Imprint MT Shadow"; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128;">The head, or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prostomium" title="Prostomium"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">prostomium</span></a>, is relatively well developed,
compared with other annelids. It projects forward over the mouth, which
therefore lies on the animal's underside. The head normally includes two to
four pair of eyes, although there are some blind species. These are typically fairly
simple structures, capable of distinguishing only light and dark, although some
species have large eyes with lenses that may be capable of more sophisticated
vision.</span></div>
<div style="color: #b6d7a8; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Imprint MT Shadow"; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128;">The head also includes
a pair of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antenna_%28biology%29" title="Antenna (biology)"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">antennae</span></a>,
tentacle-like <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palp" title="Palp"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">palps</span></a>, and a pair of pits lined with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cilia" title="Cilia"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">cilia</span></a>, known as "nuchal organs". These latter appear
to be <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemoreceptor" title="Chemoreceptor"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">chemoreceptors</span></a>, and help the worm to seek
out food.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "Imprint MT Shadow";">2. Clitellates</span><br />
<div style="color: #b6d7a8; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Imprint MT Shadow"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clitellate" title="Clitellate"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Clitellates</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Imprint MT Shadow"; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128;">
(about 10,000 species). These have few or no chetae per segment, and no <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuchal_organ" title="Nuchal organ"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">nuchal organs</span></a> or parapodia. However, they
have a unique reproductive organ, the ring-shaped <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clitellum" title="Clitellum"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">clitellum</span></a> ("<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pack_saddle" title="Pack saddle"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">pack saddle</span></a>") round their bodies,
which produces a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pupa" title="Pupa"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">cocoon</span></a> that stores and nourishes
fertilized eggs until they hatch or, in moniligastrids, yolky eggs that provide
nutrition for the embyros. The clitellates are sub-divided into:</span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #984806; font-family: "Imprint MT Shadow"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Imprint MT Shadow"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Imprint MT Shadow"; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">A.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><span style="color: #984806; font-family: "Imprint MT Shadow"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">Oligochaeta</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="color: #b6d7a8; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Imprint MT Shadow"; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128;">Oligochaeta is a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_classification" title="Scientific classification"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">subclass</span></a>
of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal" title="Animal"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">animals</span></a> in the biological <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">phylum</span></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annelida" title="Annelida"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Annelida</span></a>, which is made up of many types
of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquatic_animal" title="Aquatic animal"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">aquatic</span></a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrestrial_animal" title="Terrestrial animal"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">terrestrial</span></a>
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worm" title="Worm"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">worms</span></a>, and this includes all of the various <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthworm" title="Earthworm"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">earthworms</span></a>. Specifically, it contains the
terrestrial <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Megadrile&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Megadrile (page does not exist)"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">megadrile</span></a>
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthworm" title="Earthworm"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">earthworms</span></a> (some of which are semi- or
fully aquatic), and freshwater or semi-terrestrial <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Microdrile&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Microdrile (page does not exist)"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">microdrile</span></a>
forms including the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tubificidae" title="Tubificidae"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">tubificids</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pot_worm" title="Pot worm"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">pot worms</span></a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_worm" title="Ice worm"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">ice worms</span></a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enchytraeidae" title="Enchytraeidae"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Enchytraeidae</span></a>), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lumbriculus_variegatus" title="Lumbriculus variegatus"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">blackworms</span></a>
(<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lumbriculidae" title="Lumbriculidae"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Lumbriculidae</span></a>) and several interstitial
marine worms.</span></div>
<div style="color: #b6d7a8; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Imprint MT Shadow"; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128;">With around 10,000
known species the Oligochaeta make up about one half of the phylum <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annelida" title="Annelida"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Annelida</span></a>. These worms usually have few <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seta" title="Seta"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">setae</span></a> (chaetae) or "bristles" on the outer body
surface, and lack <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parapodium" title="Parapodium"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">parapodia</span></a>, unlike <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polychaeta" title="Polychaeta"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">polychaeta</span></a>.</span></div>
<div style="color: #b6d7a8; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Imprint MT Shadow"; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128;">Oligochaetes are well-segmented
worms and most have a spacious <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_cavity" title="Body cavity"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">body cavity</span></a> (coelom) that is used as a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroskeleton" title="Hydroskeleton"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">hydroskeleton</span></a>. They range in length from
less than 0.5 millimetres (0.020 in) up to 2 to 3 metres (6.6 to 9.8 ft)
in the 'giant' species such as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giant_Gippsland_earthworm" title="Giant Gippsland earthworm"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">giant
Gippsland earthworm</span></a> and the Mekong Worm <i>Amynthas mekongianus</i>
(Cognetti, 1922).</span></div>
<div style="color: #b6d7a8; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Imprint MT Shadow"; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128;">The first segment, or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prostomium" title="Prostomium"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">prostomium</span></a>, of oligochaetes is usually a
smooth lobe or cone without sensory organs, although it is sometimes extended
to form a tentacle. The remaining segments have no appendages, but they do have
a small number of bristles, or chaetae. These tend to be longer in aquatic
forms than in the burrowing earthworms, and can have a variety of shapes.</span></div>
<div style="color: #b6d7a8; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Imprint MT Shadow"; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128;">Each segment has four
bundles of chaetae, with two on the underside, and the others on the sides. The
bundles can contain anything from one to twenty-five chaetae, and include
muscles to pull them in and out of the body. This enables the worm to gain a
grip on the soil or mud as it burrows into the substrate. When burrowing, the
body moves <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peristalsis" title="Peristalsis"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">peristaltically</span></a>,
alternately contracting and stretching to push itself forward.</span></div>
<div style="color: #b6d7a8; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Imprint MT Shadow"; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128;">A number of segments
in the forward part of the body are modified by the presence of numerous
secretory glands. Together, they form the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clitellum" title="Clitellum"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">clitellum</span></a>, which is important in
reproduction.</span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #984806; font-family: "Imprint MT Shadow"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Imprint MT Shadow"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Imprint MT Shadow"; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">B.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><span style="color: #984806; font-family: "Imprint MT Shadow"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">Hirudinea </span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhc3j87C3c66-5lYtCS4ynGCA1SlpKC9gmM_ouKcNfYC6qhb2fx5yiMGjhhyGdzDkPGfuE54hKLfX79AlexlbUmqohtkIhQc0yO1Hmg8jvEm-E__dOtVA82VpMTKLwkAAQMBsHv_1YPAoc/s1600/3.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="137" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhc3j87C3c66-5lYtCS4ynGCA1SlpKC9gmM_ouKcNfYC6qhb2fx5yiMGjhhyGdzDkPGfuE54hKLfX79AlexlbUmqohtkIhQc0yO1Hmg8jvEm-E__dOtVA82VpMTKLwkAAQMBsHv_1YPAoc/s320/3.jpeg" width="320" /></a></div>
<div style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="color: #b6d7a8; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Imprint MT Shadow"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128;">Leeches</span><span style="font-family: "Imprint MT Shadow"; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128;"> are segmented worms that belong to
the phylum <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annelida" title="Annelida"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Annelida</span></a> and comprise the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Class_%28biology%29" title="Class (biology)"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">subclass</span></a> <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Hirudinea</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-Buchsbaum_1-0"> </sup>Like other <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oligochaeta" title="Oligochaeta"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">oligochaetes</span></a>, such as earthworms, leeches
share a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clitellum" title="Clitellum"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">clitellum</span></a> and are <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermaphrodites" title="Hermaphrodites"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">hermaphrodites</span></a>. Nevertheless, they differ
from other oligochaetes in significant ways. For example, leeches do not have
bristles and the external segmentation of their bodies does not correspond with
the internal segmentation of their organs. Their bodies are much more solid as
the spaces in their <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coelom" title="Coelom"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">coelom</span></a> are dense with connective tissues.
They also have two suckers, one at each end.</span></div>
<div style="color: #b6d7a8; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Imprint MT Shadow"; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128;">The majority of
leeches live in freshwater environments, while some species can be found in
terrestrial and marine environments, as well. Most leeches are <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hematophagous" title="Hematophagous"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">hematophagous</span></a>, as they are predominantly
blood suckers that feed on blood from vertebrate and invertebrate animals.
Almost 700 species of leeches are currently recognized, of which some 100 are
marine, 90 terrestrial and the remainder freshwater taxa.</span></div>
<div style="color: #b6d7a8; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Imprint MT Shadow"; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128;">Leeches, such as the <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hirudo_medicinalis" title="Hirudo medicinalis"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Hirudo medicinalis</span></a></i>,
have been historically used in medicine to remove blood from patients.<sup id="cite_ref-Payton1_5-0"> </sup>The practice of leeching can be traced to
ancient India and Greece, and continued well into the 18th and 19th centuries
in both Europe and North America. In modern times, the practice of leeching is
much rarer and has been replaced by other contemporary uses of leeches, such as
the reattachment of body parts and reconstructive and plastic surgeries and, in
Germany, treating osteoarthritis.</span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
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<div style="margin-left: 36.0pt;">
<br /></div>
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEilcrF5KqFdc01soPY2EBd_nB-lYXCXfLFTEpk3nkPrnWnu18e6U_-1QWCNfc4N9H6NF1j4lMj6lrijN0W7bzJ60HEP5NzVgWwf55U1K1IISOCOtQNILY4-U_-fIEmRSRgr890T7C7cYNw/s1600/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEilcrF5KqFdc01soPY2EBd_nB-lYXCXfLFTEpk3nkPrnWnu18e6U_-1QWCNfc4N9H6NF1j4lMj6lrijN0W7bzJ60HEP5NzVgWwf55U1K1IISOCOtQNILY4-U_-fIEmRSRgr890T7C7cYNw/s320/1.jpg" width="296" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span style="color: #4f6228; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12pt;">Waduh, kalau kita bicara tentang kecoa mungkin ada yang
risih apalagi yang phobia kecoa. Tapi ini fakta unik teman, jadi nggak usah
takut. Fakta ini juga memperluas wawasan kita dan kita jadi tahu <b>rahasia
sang kecoa</b>.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #984806; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">1. Kecoa pada umumnya
jarang terbang</span></b><span style="color: #984806; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #4f6228; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent3; mso-themeshade: 128;">karena jika terbang,
tubuh mereka akan panas namun ada sebagian kecoa yang gemar sekali terbang yang
biasanya hidup di Amerika Tengah dan Selatan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #984806; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">2. Kecoa penyebab
global warming</span></b><span style="color: #984806; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #4f6228; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent3; mso-themeshade: 128;">Studi menunjukkan
bahwa kecoa kentut rata2 tiap 15 menit. Bahkan setelah mati, mereka akan tetap
melepaskan metana hingga 18 jam. Dalam skala global, gas dalam perut serangga
diperkirakan menyumbang 20% dari semua emisi metana. Fakta ini menempatkan
kecoa sebagai salah satu kontributor terbesar global warming. Kontributor besar
lainnya adalah rayap dan sapi.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #984806; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">3. Akan Mati Jika
telentang</span></b><span style="color: #984806; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #4f6228; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent3; mso-themeshade: 128;">Kecoa bisa mati karena
tidak dapat membetulkan posisinya setelah jatuh. Tanpa kemampuan untuk mengontrol
ototnya, kecoa bisa mati dalam keadaan telentang. Jadi, jika ada kecoa yang
terlentang jangan langsung disapu / dibalikkan badannya ya, nanti dia kabur.
^_^</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #984806; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">4. Tidak berkepala</span></b><span style="color: #984806; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="color: #4f6228; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-themecolor: accent3; mso-themeshade: 128;">Hewan yang satu ini memang sangat
menjijikan, mereka kebanyakan hidup di saluran air atau pun toilet. Tapi siapa
sangka bahwa kecoa dapat hidup selama 9 hari setelah kepalanya copot. Mengapa
Demikian???<br />
<br />
Tidak Ada Kepala = Mati?<br />
<br />
Pernyataan itu tidak berlaku bagi kecoa,<br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=6449829783435488555" name="more"></a>dimana dapat hidup selama 9 hari bahkan berminggu-minggu
dengan makanan yang tersisa di tubuhnya dan bernafas melalui tubuh.<br />
<br />
Manusia bisa bernafas melalui mulut atau hidung dan otak mengontrol semua
fungsi kritis di tubuh manusia. Terlebih lagi tubuh manusia tidak bisa makan
tanpa kepala. Dan tentu saja manusia bisa meninggal jika tanpa kepala.
Sedangkan kecoa tidak punya tekanan darah seperti manusia.<br />
<br />
"Mereka tidak memiliki jaringan pembuluh darah seperti manusia, atau
pembuluh darah kapiler kecil yang membutuhkan tekanan darah untuk mengalirnya
darah." kata Joseph Kunkel seorang biochemist dari University of
Masschusetts.<br />
<br />
"Setelah anda memotong kepala mereka, leher mereka akan tertutupi semacam
gumpalan, sehingga tidak akan ada pendarahan," katanya.<br />
<br />
Hewan kecil ini bertahan dengan bernafas melalui saluran atau lubang kecil di
setiap bagian tubuhnya. Dan lagi, otak kecoa tidak mengontrol proses bernafas
dan darah tidak mengangkut oksigen keseluruh tubuh.<br />
<br />
Kecoa juga termasuk poikilotherms atau hewan berdarah dingin, artinya mereka
membutuhkan lebih sedikit makanan daripada manusia.<br />
<br />
"Serangga ini dapat bertahan hidup selama berminggu-minggu dengan hanya
makan sehari." kata Kunkel.<br />
<br />
"Selama predator tidak memakan mereka, mereka hanya perlu diam saja,
kecuali mereka terinfeksi jamur atau bakteri atau virus, mereka akan
mati."<br />
<br />
Meski daya tahan tubuhnya tinggi, namun sebagai makhluk bernyawa ia tetaplah
membutuhkan makanan. Persoalannya, tanpa kepala ia tak bisa makan. Karena
itulah ia mati setelah satu bulan. Sebab kecoa hanya mampu bertahan hidup tanpa
makan selama 30-an hari.</span><span style="color: #4f6228; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent3; mso-themeshade: 128;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #984806; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">5. Kecoa bisa
menyebabkan asma</span></b><span style="color: #984806; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #4f6228; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent3; mso-themeshade: 128;">Alergi kecoa pertama
kali dilaporkan sekitar 50 tahun yg lalu, dan sangat berbahaya. Alergen kecoa
adalah kotorannya dan serpihan2 dari bangkai kecoa yang menjadi debu dan masuk
ke dalam tabung bronchial. Kepekaan terhadap debu ini memicu reaksi alergi
bronkial yang dikenal sebagai asma.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #984806; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">6. Pertumbuhan yang
super cepat</span></b><span style="color: #984806; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #4f6228; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent3; mso-themeshade: 128;">Sang betina dapat
memproduksi 6-8 tempat telur selama 6 bulan hidupnya, yang membuat 180-320
kecoa baru. Jika hanya 10 anaknya menjadi betina subur (dan itu merupakan
perkiraan kecilnya – jumlahnya bisa lebih dari 100), ada ribuan ekor kecoa
dalam beberapa bulan saja.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #984806; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">7. Mereka adalah
pelari yang sangat cepat!</span></b></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi1yXPqtLcdYnUTr0lGmRrB0aLit3h-KLmpYxs3lOoRTM-OWEoFJr13BF7Iv-G0REfFzAfoo9bu96s9WOQBP9pB20hBPV9S7XE-rqZkRP1YGuymIlvt70D0jTt9YyRSNl9Q8hJXr7nlRCI/s1600/2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="150" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi1yXPqtLcdYnUTr0lGmRrB0aLit3h-KLmpYxs3lOoRTM-OWEoFJr13BF7Iv-G0REfFzAfoo9bu96s9WOQBP9pB20hBPV9S7XE-rqZkRP1YGuymIlvt70D0jTt9YyRSNl9Q8hJXr7nlRCI/s200/2.jpg" width="200" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #4f6228; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent3; mso-themeshade: 128;">Penelitian menunjukkan
bahwa kecepatan kecoa Amerika tercepat tercatat mendekati 2 mil per jam (75 cm
per detik). Untuk ukuran tubuh segitu, itu udah tergolong sangat cepat.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #984806; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">8. Kecoa dapat
bertahan walapun di bom dengan bom atom</span></b><span style="color: #984806; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #4f6228; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent3; mso-themeshade: 128;">Ada pembicaraan yang
menyatakan kecoa merupakan satu2nya yang dapat bertahan hidup dalam serangan
bom nuklir. Belum terbukti secara ilmiah, namun ada beberapa bukti logisnya.
Sel-sel hidup sensitif pada radiasi terutama ketika mereka sedang membelah
(itulah efektivitas dari radiasi pada sel kanker). Sel-sel kecoa membelah hanya
pada saat siklus molting, sekitar sekali seminggu. Maka mereka bersifat
sensitif pada radiasi hanya sekitar 48 jam, atau 1/4 minggu. Manusia memiliki
darah dan immine stem-cell yang membelah secara konstan. Dengan radiasi bom
nuklir, semua manusia akan mati, namun hanya 1/4 dari kecoa yang akan bertahan
hidup. Yang menarik, Mythbusters melakukan tes dan ternyata kecoa dapat hidup
pada intensitas radiasi 10x yang dibutuhkan untuk membunuh manusia.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #984806; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">9. sistem motorik kecoa digunakan dalam bidang robotik</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #4f6228; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent3; mso-themeshade: 128;">Dengan mengamati sistem
senso-motorik kecoa, dewasa ini dikembangkan berbagai kegunaan praktis dari
keunggulan sistem tsb. Misalnya saja para ahli robotik, kini berusaha
mengembangkan robot yang memiliki dua sistem sensorik independen. Bidang
terapan dari senso-motorik buatan ini, juga cukup luas. Mulai dari produk untuk
kebutuhan sehari-hari, seperti mobil misalnya, sampai ke robot penjelajah untuk
misi luar angkasa. Di masa depan, robot penjelajah planit Mars sekelas Spirit
atau Opportunity misalnya, bisa dilengkapi sirkuit pengendali ganda, yang
berfungsi independen persis seperti sistem senso-motorik kecoa. Jika salah satu
sistem macet, yang lainnya tetap berfungsi. Dengan begitu kehandalan misinya
dapat dijamin.<br />
<br />
Robot yang meniru sistem saraf motorik kecoa, dikembangkan oleh para peneliti
robotik di Universita Case Western di Cleveland Ohio, AS, masing-masing Daniel
Kingsley, Roger Quinn dan Roy Ritzman, menunjukan bahwa dengan meniru sistem
ganda saraf kecoa, terbukti robotnya menjadi lebih handal. Robot berbentuk
mobil atau rover seperti penjelajah Mars, akan mengalami kesulitan besar jika
salah satu rodanya macet atau sistem pengendaliannya rusak. Namun dengan meniru
sistem saraf motorik kecoa, hambatan semacam itu dapat ditanggulangi segera. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #984806; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">10. kecoa membantu dalam bidang medis</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="color: #4f6228; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent3; mso-themeshade: 128;">Para ilmuwan di india yg sedang
mengembangkan teknologi jantung buatan menggunakan jantung kecoak sebagai
model, sebuah prototype yg dihasilkan mampu memberikan sebuah jantung buatan
yang lebih murah dan lebih bisa diandalkan untuk dicangkok dibanding dengan
jantung buatan yang sekarang ada.<br />
<br />
Kunci utama jantung buatan tersebut berkaitan dengan sistem pernafasan kecoak
yang sangat unik. Kecoak memiliki 13 bilik pemompa darah, sedang manusia hanya
memiliki 4. Jika sebuah bilik jantung manusia tidak mampu memompa maka dia akan
mendapatkan serangan jantung yang sangat fatal, tapi dengan jantung yang
memiliki 13 bilik ini, jantung akan tetap mampu memompa meskipun 1 bilik
mengalami kerusakan.<br />
<br />
Jantung kecoak yang memiliki 13 bilik membuatnya mampu untuk tetap bertahan
meskipun salah satunya mengalami kegagalan, tapi hal itu tidak bisa terjadi
pada manusia.<br />
Model yang mereka buat berbasis pada sistem kerja jantung kecoak, dimana mereka
membuat mekanisme tekanan menjadi lebih terperinci. Jadi meskipun salah satu
bilik gagal, orang yang menggunakan jantung ini masih bisa hidup. <br />
Jantung buatan ini tidak menekan komponen lain (elemen pemompa) dan menggunakan
tekanan yang rendah pada sel darah, ini kata Professor Sujoy Guha sang pemimpin
tim penelitian. <br />
<br />
10 orang anggota tim penelitian di Indian Institute of Technology (ITT) yang
berada di barat Bengal ini menghabiskan hampir 3 tahun waktunya untuk
mengembangkan jantung buatan ini dengan menggunakan bahan metal dan plastik. <br />
Jantung buatan ini merupakan terobosan baru dan lebih maju dibandingkan dengan
jantung buatan yang sekarang ada di pasaran, dimana pemompaan darah masih
tergantung pada sebuah bilik. Ini adalah sebuah kemajuan tetapi merupakan satu
hal yang rumit. Akan membutuhkan 3 tahun lagi untuk memasarkan produk ini. <br />
<br />
Saat ini produk ini sedang diujicobakan ke binatang, memerlukan beberapa tahun
untuk dicobakan ke manusia, kata Professor Sujoy Guha lagi. Diperkirakan harga
jantung buatan ini bakal berkisar 100.000 rupee yang hampir sama dengan $2000.
Ini 30 kali lebih murah dibandingkan jantung buatan yang ada dipasaran saat
ini.</span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #17365d; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themeshade: 191;">KENAPA KECOA DITAKUTI?</span></b></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh9eni-Z2ghMn8YQL_jNIpNZKlGSPrrye4njil7h2eThyphenhyphensMcPZBRpEWLpdgEEOWk-oB7QJ0vfWQkCW_HuATYmqbAQ0WXmNn3IbFi2AU_xgIgyEYLx6Omsjbyj2dn-u8AHuRkDt2vWX18xY/s1600/3.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="319" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh9eni-Z2ghMn8YQL_jNIpNZKlGSPrrye4njil7h2eThyphenhyphensMcPZBRpEWLpdgEEOWk-oB7QJ0vfWQkCW_HuATYmqbAQ0WXmNn3IbFi2AU_xgIgyEYLx6Omsjbyj2dn-u8AHuRkDt2vWX18xY/s320/3.jpeg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="color: #365f91; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 191;">Nah..sekarang teman,
kita akan membahas faktor-faktor yang membuat kecoak sangat ditakuti oleh orang
banyak. Faktor-faktor tersebut antara lain:</span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1. Kotor</span></b><span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
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<span style="color: #365f91; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 191;">Kecoa suka bersarang
dan menetap di tempat lembab, gelap dan kotor seperti di got, di sampahan, di
bawah lemari, di atap rumah, dan sebagainya. Karena kaki serta badannya yang
kotor maka kecoak bisa mendatangkan serta menularkan penyakit pada makhluk
hidup termasuk manusia.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2. Kakinya Yang Tajam</span></b><span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
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<span style="color: #365f91; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 191;">Pernahkan kecoa berjalan
menyusuri bagian tubuh anda? rasanya geli, tajam dan seram yang memberikan
sensasi yang tidak menyenangkan bagi sebagian besar orang.</span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3. Jalannya Oleng Dan Cepat </span></b><span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
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<span style="color: #365f91; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 191;">Kecoa jalan seenak
udelnya sendiri kemana pun dia mau sesuai dengan insting kebinatangannya dengan
sensor dua antena di kepala. Gerakan serta arah jalan dan terbang kecoak tidak
dapat diduga. Kecoa bisa dengan cepat dari sudut yang satu tiba-tiba mampir ke
badan kita.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4. Warnanya Yang Gelap </span></b><span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #365f91; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 191;">Corak warnanya coklat,
tapi ada juga yang warnanya putih gelap (albino kali), hitam bercorak kuning,
dan sebagainya. Yang pasti warna itu terkesang kotor dan menjijikan siapa saja
yang melihatnya.</span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5. Tahan Banting</span></b><span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
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<span style="color: #365f91; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 191;">kecoak kota (kecoak di
perkotaan) nyaris tidak punya musuh, kecuali ya kita ini yang mati-matian
berusaha untuk membunuh kecoak itu. Faktanya, kecoak memiliki pelindung yang
kuat di punggungnya yang membuat ia tidak mudah mati dipukul. Oiya buat
informasi nih, jangan kira kecoak langsung mati ketika dipukul ya! Beberapa menit
kemudian kecoak itu akan kembali berjalan dan kabur entah kemana.
(Hihihi,,,jangan tersinggung klo dibohongi kecoak ya).</span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">6. Makan Kotoran</span></b><span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #365f91; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 191;">Kecua suka makan
kotoran serta sisa makanan yang berceceran. Ada juga kecoak yang senang dengan
kotoran feses manusia. Terkadang makanan kita yang kita simpan pun dimakan
kecoa jika kita tidak hati-hati menyimpan makanan.</span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">7. Buang Sembarangan</span></b><span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #365f91; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 191;">Namanya juga binatang,
jadi terserah mau buang air di mana pun dia mau. Tidak hanya kotoran saja yang
dia keluarkan, namun juga telur kecoa yang bercangkang keras yang ditempatkan
di tempat yang tersembunyi dan sulit dijangkau.</span></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11909319886329515670noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6449829783435488555.post-10721819054619402762012-12-10T04:51:00.002-08:002012-12-10T04:56:08.003-08:00tanaman-tanaman cantik yang beracun<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"> tanaman dibawah ini merupakan tanaman yang bisa dikatakan memiliki keindahan tingkat dewa (ALAY), tetapi siapa sangka dibalik kecantikannya tersembunyi racun yang sangat membahayakan...</span><br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">1) Oleander</span><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhCl34zZiEm-MzKW87xI2IXa92MgEdQ-h6fjuTHcR2VJLKIzFY0yMSjyVG4JaTQv29pn1vS5PNabMkUaiGHNzyY_uvP_C0VS95wTJexHG1ZRplLY5N4a0FtRxwknXJ03KcLgOZCWRtuO9U/s1600/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="303" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhCl34zZiEm-MzKW87xI2IXa92MgEdQ-h6fjuTHcR2VJLKIzFY0yMSjyVG4JaTQv29pn1vS5PNabMkUaiGHNzyY_uvP_C0VS95wTJexHG1ZRplLY5N4a0FtRxwknXJ03KcLgOZCWRtuO9U/s400/1.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
Merupakan tanaman paling beracun di dunia.Terdiri atas beberapa
racun.Yang palin berbahaya adalah neriine yang dapat memperlambat kerja
jantung.Disebut yang paling beracun karena racun terdapat pada seluruh
tubuh tanaman.<br />
<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">2) Deadly Nightshade</span><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg-hQORWb_zDL73i6B8lVQZ_sypqe0d3NWVz-fod-wGoITwYSAzLDxLSmlqfJ9KDRnXMwZtXyqUFtem1I1fz1mKl8JxdyoN19xNflNgdF8khYJOc7D-HeZaXTwVIvEmBdwc6vXgreMcRxw/s1600/2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="270" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg-hQORWb_zDL73i6B8lVQZ_sypqe0d3NWVz-fod-wGoITwYSAzLDxLSmlqfJ9KDRnXMwZtXyqUFtem1I1fz1mKl8JxdyoN19xNflNgdF8khYJOc7D-HeZaXTwVIvEmBdwc6vXgreMcRxw/s400/2.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"> </span>Sebenarnya Tanaman ini termasuk keluarga terung-terungan
(Solanaceae).Tanaman ini berbunga ungu,mirip terong dan berbuah ungu
mirip buah beri.Seluruh bagian tanaman,termasuk buahnya,mengandung
alkaloid tropanik (Tropane alkaloids) seperti atropine,hiosikamin dan
hioskin dapat menyebabkan gangguan saraf dan menyebabkan kematian.<br />
<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">3) Water Hemlock</span><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiURA0cNTvAtxjdvBqXuT6AcF-a_uPseukP1TqaeOndhUxYTgB2uhNmGvrD81TIwRKbHZqf_KpphJ1B6mUMCNR9CAOXjNpN3SrstF0mSXEWXbM-qk7gA0Fb6SOuhlBk4dbHot-bzleb2tc/s1600/3.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiURA0cNTvAtxjdvBqXuT6AcF-a_uPseukP1TqaeOndhUxYTgB2uhNmGvrD81TIwRKbHZqf_KpphJ1B6mUMCNR9CAOXjNpN3SrstF0mSXEWXbM-qk7gA0Fb6SOuhlBk4dbHot-bzleb2tc/s400/3.JPG" width="400" /></a></div>
<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"> </span>Merupakan tanaman yang masih sekerabat dengan parsnip dan wortel.Tanaman
ini mengandung cicutoxin yang dapat melumpuhkan sistem saraf pusat dan
menyebabkan kematian dalam waktu -+ 60 menit.<br />
<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">4) Jarak</span><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgYb55_G0hK5Ix7ZHm_-jIqgEKFZW2S4BQPU_Jvaz3leiVclbTq3NJqkNp2e2bY7jLLFpmheaQ_KXhH-pvC2W_QzSvxBpTgy_Gkzc8Lr4IMKXMaCKrRnO1ML3OYqpcbzEpTEMgjPaU42p0/s1600/4.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgYb55_G0hK5Ix7ZHm_-jIqgEKFZW2S4BQPU_Jvaz3leiVclbTq3NJqkNp2e2bY7jLLFpmheaQ_KXhH-pvC2W_QzSvxBpTgy_Gkzc8Lr4IMKXMaCKrRnO1ML3OYqpcbzEpTEMgjPaU42p0/s400/4.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"> </span>Nama latinnya <i>Ricinus communis</i>.Tanaman ini sebenarnya digunakan
untuk minyak jarak,namun biji tanaman ini mengandung racun Ricin yang
menyebabkan diare berdarah,dehidrasi,dan kematian setelah 3-5 hari.<br />
<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">5) Machineel Tree</span><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhXYnA9p9LGhuEIGCbPL7uDpOBUIHfDwGlHSfBJRmc6UdxhvfvS-HaeQeU8YvfhCbNP37e9R2vnb4tUbYzn-FIZk24CC5S8LbhCySoj7D7Gtxg58mwLbEb_d6ku5mrN2AHYgK2ZTzPAn00/s1600/5.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="274" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhXYnA9p9LGhuEIGCbPL7uDpOBUIHfDwGlHSfBJRmc6UdxhvfvS-HaeQeU8YvfhCbNP37e9R2vnb4tUbYzn-FIZk24CC5S8LbhCySoj7D7Gtxg58mwLbEb_d6ku5mrN2AHYgK2ZTzPAn00/s400/5.jpeg" width="400" /></a></div>
<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"> </span>Pohon ini merupakan kerabat jauh dari tanaman Euphorbia,walaupun tidak
berduri namun masih mempunyai kesamaan morfologi pada beberapa bagian
tumbuhan.Getah tanaman ini menyebabkan iritasi yang hebat dan memakan
buahnya dapat menyebabkan muntah-muntah,nausea serta kematian dalam
jangka waktu yang tidak terlalu singkat.<br />
<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">6) Rosary Pea</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"> </span>Tanaman ini bukan tanaman saga pohon yee,ini nih yang rambat.Biji perdu
perambat ini mengandung racun Abrin,yang kandungannya dan juga gejalanya
hampir sama dengan ricin (punya jarak)namun lebih mematikan.Bijinya ini
sering dibuat perhiasan karena warna mencolok.<br />
<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">7) Bintaro</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"> </span>Tanaman ini hampir,bahkan seperti badan kedua dari tanaman
Oleander.Seluruh bagian tanaman beracun,terutama buah dan biji yang
mengandung cerberin,semacam racun kardiogenik,melambatkan kerja jantung.<br />
<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">8) Doll eyes</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"> </span>Lucu,nggak? Mata boneka....mau kamu petikin untuk buat boneka?Jangan
harap.Buahnya ini mengandung racun cardiogenik juga.Sekali makan
buahnya,mungkin bisa mati dalam beberapa jam.<br />
<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"> </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">9) Kecubung Wulung atau Foxglove</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"> </span>ini ada tanamannye!Bunga ini mengandung racun bername digitoxin!
Iwanpeyek...iwanpeyek...kita bise anoreksie,jantung kite makin lambek
kita bisa koma juge (tapi racun ini dapat dikeluarkan lewat liver).<br />
<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">10) Kecubung</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"> </span>Bunga kecubung,tapi yang pohon.Flora unik ini,walaupun begitu <span style="font-size: large;"><u><b><i>chwantig</i></b></u></span>
(kealayan),namun sangat berbahaya jika disentuh maupun
dipegang,terutama batang,getah,dan daun,juga biji.Tanaman ini 'nyimpan'
schopolamine,hyosicamine,dan atropine (ada racun nigtshade juga ?!?!)
,yang dapat menyebabkan paralisis pada otot polos,diare sampai kematian.<br />
<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">11) Lily of The Valley</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"> </span> Mengandung 38 jenis racun cardiac glycoside.Setelah memegang tanaman
ini,tangan harus dicuci sebelum melakukan kegiatan lainnya untuk
mencegah racun masuk ke tubuh.<br />
<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">12) Jimsonweed</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"> </span> Mengandung alkaloid tropanik (lagi),atropine (<span style="font-size: x-small;">lagi</span>) dan scopolamine (<span style="font-size: medium;">udah,udah!</span>).Bisa menyebabkan halusinasi, myriadisis, dan amnesia.<br />
<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">13) Daphne</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"> </span> Buah-buahnya mengandung racun fatal.Dapat menyebabkan rasa terbakar di mulut sampai koma dan kematian.<br />
<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">14) Azalea</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"> </span> <br />
<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"> </span>Seluruh tanaman adalah racun.Dapat menyebabkan muntah,nausea,sampai koma.Jarang sekali fatal.<br />
<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">15) Sumac</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"> </span>Tanaman ini cantik-cantik berbahaya.Serupa mangga,ini nih mengandung
urushiol (cari di Wikipedia,sana!) yang menyebabkan gatal-gatal dan
berak-bercak kurap.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">Cukup itu saja tanaman beracunnya yach.... meskipun bunga di atas kecantikannya cettar membahana badai, tetapi jangan sekali-kali memakannya ya, apalagi menawarkannya pada orang lain. hehehehe.... ok thanks for your attention.... </span></span>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11909319886329515670noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6449829783435488555.post-69248041643111371192012-12-09T03:22:00.000-08:002012-12-09T03:22:39.159-08:00introduction of platyhelminthes<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<b><span style="color: #10253f; font-family: "Californian FB","serif"; font-size: 24.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-style-textfill-fill-alpha: 100.0%; mso-style-textfill-fill-color: #10253F; mso-style-textfill-fill-colortransforms: lumm=50000; mso-style-textfill-fill-themecolor: text2; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themeshade: 128;">Phylum
Platyhelminthes</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #10253f; font-family: "Californian FB","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-style-textfill-fill-alpha: 100.0%; mso-style-textfill-fill-color: #10253F; mso-style-textfill-fill-colortransforms: lumm=50000; mso-style-textfill-fill-themecolor: text2; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themeshade: 128;"></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #984807; font-family: "Century","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-style-textfill-fill-alpha: 100.0%; mso-style-textfill-fill-color: #984807; mso-style-textfill-fill-colortransforms: lumm=50000; mso-style-textfill-fill-themecolor: accent6; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">Phylum Trend Synopsis:</span></b><span style="color: #984807; font-family: "Century","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-style-textfill-fill-alpha: 100.0%; mso-style-textfill-fill-color: #984807; mso-style-textfill-fill-colortransforms: lumm=50000; mso-style-textfill-fill-themecolor: accent6; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;"> Commonly called flatworms, the phylum name is derived from
Greek and describes the body shape of these animals: dorsally ventrally
flattened but otherwise worm-like. The approximately 20,000 species are
classified into four classes: the free living flatworms in the <b>Class
Turbellaria</b>, the parasitic monogeans in the Class Monogea, the parasitic
flukes in the the <b>Class Trematoda</b>, and the parasitic tapeworms in the <b>Class
Cestoidea</b>. The body plan is that of an elongated organism that is dorsally
ventrally flattened with <b>bilateral symmetry </b>and with a hint of <b>cephalization</b>.
Distinct <b>tissues </b>and <b>organ systems</b> are found, but the organs are
not located in a body cavity. Cross sections of these animals show that, except
for the digestive cavity, no other internal cavity is found. Because the organs
are in direct contact with a surrounding loosely organized tissue, these
animals are said to be <b>acoelomate</b>. These animals are saoid to be
triplpoblastic because three layers of cells can be seen: an outer epidermis
(ectoderm), a middle layer that may be several cells thick (mesoderm)and a
distinct lining of the gut the endoderm. The digestive system is described as <b>incomplete</b>
because it is not a tube with a mouth at one end and anus at the other. There
is only one opening, so it is described asa <b>sac-like</b> system. Food enters
the mouth and is digested in a branched <b>gastrovascular cavity.</b> Any
non-digestable residue must be regurgitated back through the mouth. Muscle
layers are well developed and controlled by a distinct nervous system with two
longitudinal nerve cords that run the length of the body. Two nerve ganglia and
sensory receptors at the anterior end coordinate activity sending nerve signals
to the rest of the body by two ventral longitudinal nerve cords. There is
no separate skeletal system and body support is by hydrostatic pressure or by a
cuticle. There are no special organs for respiration and circulation. Diffusion
across the body surface or from the gastrovascular cavity to the body cells
fulfills these functional needs. Individuals may have both male and female sex
organs, producing sperm and eggs. Fertilization is internal. Microscopic
fertilized eggs are released. Development may be direct into minature adult
forms or indirect through a indepemdent larval stage. As parasites of animals,
the platyhelminthes have substantial impacts on ecosystems. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #984807; font-family: "Century","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-style-textfill-fill-alpha: 100.0%; mso-style-textfill-fill-color: #984807; mso-style-textfill-fill-colortransforms: lumm=50000; mso-style-textfill-fill-themecolor: accent6; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">Modern analysis of DNA sequences indicates that these animals may
be related to the protostome branch of the animal phylogentic tree. They are
placed in a newly defined clade called the Lophotrochozoa along with rotifers,
annelids, and molluscs. This new grouping suggests that the lack of a
body cavity may not be a primitive condition but one that evolved secondarily
(later) from animals having a coelom. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #4f6228; font-family: "Californian FB","serif"; font-size: 18.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-style-textfill-fill-alpha: 100.0%; mso-style-textfill-fill-color: #4F6228; mso-style-textfill-fill-colortransforms: lumm=50000; mso-style-textfill-fill-themecolor: accent3; mso-themecolor: accent3; mso-themeshade: 128;">Class Turbellaria</span></b></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj88ImyE8p3rmTfBvcFVo6UgUBmPJHPfNovfkwq6nmKUhzoiIqVpzQsdj42MscNs2Ngcazgt1aLnsqHkBLLTI_BASfkOnVNYaCx4wTj_TV1aeD96ClFjVnkDGiBZZZMbLqxr130G4vGfFk/s1600/250px-Pseudoceros_dimidiatus.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="144" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj88ImyE8p3rmTfBvcFVo6UgUBmPJHPfNovfkwq6nmKUhzoiIqVpzQsdj42MscNs2Ngcazgt1aLnsqHkBLLTI_BASfkOnVNYaCx4wTj_TV1aeD96ClFjVnkDGiBZZZMbLqxr130G4vGfFk/s200/250px-Pseudoceros_dimidiatus.jpg" width="200" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #4f6228; font-family: "Californian FB","serif"; font-size: 18.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-style-textfill-fill-alpha: 100.0%; mso-style-textfill-fill-color: #4F6228; mso-style-textfill-fill-colortransforms: lumm=50000; mso-style-textfill-fill-themecolor: accent3; mso-themecolor: accent3; mso-themeshade: 128;"> </span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #4f6228; font-family: "Californian FB","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-style-textfill-fill-alpha: 100.0%; mso-style-textfill-fill-color: #4F6228; mso-style-textfill-fill-colortransforms: lumm=50000; mso-style-textfill-fill-themecolor: accent3; mso-themecolor: accent3; mso-themeshade: 128;"> </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #984807; font-family: "Century","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-style-textfill-fill-alpha: 100.0%; mso-style-textfill-fill-color: #984807; mso-style-textfill-fill-colortransforms: lumm=50000; mso-style-textfill-fill-themecolor: accent6; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">Class Turbellaria has approximately 3000 species in 12 orders. Most
are marine and benthic, but some also inhabit fresh water and moist temperate
and tropical terrestrial habitats. The order Temnocephalida is entirely
commensal or parasitic, but some members of other orders are commensal as well.
Classification within the Turbellaria is in a state of flux as it is unclear
whether the class is truly monophyletic. Currently orders are defined by the
type of pharynx, organization of the reproductive system, and branching pattern
of the gut. Orders of the class Turbellaria recognized by Ruppert and Barnes
(1994) are: Nemertodermatida, Acoela, Catenulida, Haplopharyngida,
Macrostomida, Polycladida, Lecithoepitheliata, Prolecithophora, Proseriata,
Temnocephalida, Rhabdocoela, and Tricaldida. Brusca and Brusca (2003) include
Temnocephalida as a suborder of Rhabdocoela, and recognize an additional class,
Proplicastomata, which includes known specimens from Greenland.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #984807; font-family: "Century","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-style-textfill-fill-alpha: 100.0%; mso-style-textfill-fill-color: #984807; mso-style-textfill-fill-colortransforms: lumm=50000; mso-style-textfill-fill-themecolor: accent6; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">Like other members of the phylum <a href="http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Platyhelminthes/"><span style="color: #984807; mso-style-textfill-fill-alpha: 100.0%; mso-style-textfill-fill-color: #984807; mso-style-textfill-fill-colortransforms: lumm=50000; mso-style-textfill-fill-themecolor: accent6; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">Platyhelminthes</span></a>
(flatworms), those of the class Turbellaria are dorsoventrally compressed, with
high surface area to volume ratios. Marine species can be quite colorful, but
the interstitial and terrestrial turbellarians tend to be drab. Turbellarians
generally locomote by coordinated waves of cilia on a secreted mucus trail,
though some species can swim by rhythmic muscle contractions. Their <a href="http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/collections/contributors/biodidac/turbellcombo1/"><span style="color: #984807; mso-style-textfill-fill-alpha: 100.0%; mso-style-textfill-fill-color: #984807; mso-style-textfill-fill-colortransforms: lumm=50000; mso-style-textfill-fill-themecolor: accent6; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">ciliated epidermis</span></a>,
the presence of <a href="http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/collections/contributors/biodidac/turbellcombo1/"><span style="color: #984807; mso-style-textfill-fill-alpha: 100.0%; mso-style-textfill-fill-color: #984807; mso-style-textfill-fill-colortransforms: lumm=50000; mso-style-textfill-fill-themecolor: accent6; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">sub-epidermal
rhabdites</span></a>, and their free-living condition distinguish turbellarians
from members of the other classes of <a href="http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Platyhelminthes/"><span style="color: #984807; mso-style-textfill-fill-alpha: 100.0%; mso-style-textfill-fill-color: #984807; mso-style-textfill-fill-colortransforms: lumm=50000; mso-style-textfill-fill-themecolor: accent6; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">Platyhelminthes</span></a>.
The visual impression of their epidermal ciliary activity gives this group its
name, as 'Turbellaria' is derived from the Latin term for
"whirlpool."</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #984807; font-family: "Century","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-style-textfill-fill-alpha: 100.0%; mso-style-textfill-fill-color: #984807; mso-style-textfill-fill-colortransforms: lumm=50000; mso-style-textfill-fill-themecolor: accent6; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">Turbellarians lack fluid transport systems, and are acoelomate. The
gut in turbellarians has only a mouth opening. There is usually a pharynx for
introducing food into the gut, and undigested food particles are ejected
through the mouth. The final stages of digestion are intracellular. Most
members of class Turbellaria are predatory on invertebrates smaller than
themselves; the rest are herbivores, ectoparasites, or scavengers.
Turbellarians use <a href="http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/collections/contributors/biodidac/turbellcombo1/"><span style="color: #984807; mso-style-textfill-fill-alpha: 100.0%; mso-style-textfill-fill-color: #984807; mso-style-textfill-fill-colortransforms: lumm=50000; mso-style-textfill-fill-themecolor: accent6; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">protonephridia</span></a>
scattered throughout their epidermis for the excretion of metabolic waste.</span></div>
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<span style="color: #984807; font-family: "Century","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-style-textfill-fill-alpha: 100.0%; mso-style-textfill-fill-color: #984807; mso-style-textfill-fill-colortransforms: lumm=50000; mso-style-textfill-fill-themecolor: accent6; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">Turbellarians sense their environment with statocysts,
chemoreceptors, and photoreceptors. They do not have image-forming eyes, but many
species have pigment cells and photoreceptors concentrated into eyespots. The
complexity of the turbellarian peripheral nervous system varies from a simple
nerve net based on pairs of longitudinal nerve cords to an interlacing web of
nerves capable of fine muscular control. Turbellarians are simultaneous
hermaphrodites and lay eggs bundled into cocoons. The young undergo direct
development and hatch as juveniles. Spiral cleavage is prevalent. Some
turbellarians can reproduce asexually by fission. Regeneration of somatic parts
is well documented in <a href="http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Dugesia/"><span style="color: #984807; mso-style-textfill-fill-alpha: 100.0%; mso-style-textfill-fill-color: #984807; mso-style-textfill-fill-colortransforms: lumm=50000; mso-style-textfill-fill-themecolor: accent6; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">Dugesia</span></a>.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #4f6228; font-family: "Californian FB","serif"; font-size: 18.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-style-textfill-fill-alpha: 100.0%; mso-style-textfill-fill-color: #4F6228; mso-style-textfill-fill-colortransforms: lumm=50000; mso-style-textfill-fill-themecolor: accent3; mso-themecolor: accent3; mso-themeshade: 128;">Class trematodes</span></b></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEicpNKJKBC2ZPCL3zq50pLmIutHoCKu0_KAfzMAseWMCusGjsYC6cFyLJqgdnEmRZPF81__lA2rhKAAhYIlom6AJ6ru5YQ-fS1tavzo8c5lLwcpbRwI79T6VmLVNY_ey4TqJUdomFpO4t8/s1600/Schistosoma_mansoni.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="136" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEicpNKJKBC2ZPCL3zq50pLmIutHoCKu0_KAfzMAseWMCusGjsYC6cFyLJqgdnEmRZPF81__lA2rhKAAhYIlom6AJ6ru5YQ-fS1tavzo8c5lLwcpbRwI79T6VmLVNY_ey4TqJUdomFpO4t8/s200/Schistosoma_mansoni.jpg" width="200" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #984807; font-family: "Century","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-style-textfill-fill-alpha: 100.0%; mso-style-textfill-fill-color: #984807; mso-style-textfill-fill-colortransforms: lumm=50000; mso-style-textfill-fill-themecolor: accent6; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">All trematodes are parasitic, and most adult trematodes parasitize
vertebrates. Around 9000 species have been described. Their body is covered
with a tegument, a peculiar kind of epidermal arrangement in which the main
cell bodies are deep, separated from the cytoplasm that lies next to the
exterior by a layer of muscle (but connected to the exterior layer by cellular
processes. The exterior layer is syncytial; that is, it is continuous, not
broken by cell membranes. The tegument lacks cilia in adults. Unlike
monogeneans, trematodes have no opisthoaptor; instead, they are characterized
by one or two suckers. They are like turbellarians in having a relatively well
developed alimentary canal, and their muscular, excretory, and reproductive
systems are also relatively complete.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #984807; font-family: "Century","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-style-textfill-fill-alpha: 100.0%; mso-style-textfill-fill-color: #984807; mso-style-textfill-fill-colortransforms: lumm=50000; mso-style-textfill-fill-themecolor: accent6; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">Most trematodes have complex life cycles, with larval stages
parasitizing one or more species that are different from host of adults. Larval
stages of some medically important species include miracidium, redia, cercaria,
and metacercaria. Most trematodes are endoparasites. They include several
parasites that have an enormous impact on human populations, such as human
liver flukes and the blood flukes that cause schistosomiasis.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #4f6228; font-family: "Californian FB","serif"; font-size: 18.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-style-textfill-fill-alpha: 100.0%; mso-style-textfill-fill-color: #4F6228; mso-style-textfill-fill-colortransforms: lumm=50000; mso-style-textfill-fill-themecolor: accent3; mso-themecolor: accent3; mso-themeshade: 128;">Class cestodes</span></b></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiQwSsUctXJeDbRS6o7-EzWDhvlm-ePhTyQjCojWYGsfswbCyoOlnZ80BpG3RA_PAs8wa4iB5jSzwfiu9c1-Til0mwCjMbVwUX2GwXAGCcVNobzjgWC_VlTlEyJfRXqvrEqfEvnCrPPHig/s1600/cestodes.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="144" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiQwSsUctXJeDbRS6o7-EzWDhvlm-ePhTyQjCojWYGsfswbCyoOlnZ80BpG3RA_PAs8wa4iB5jSzwfiu9c1-Til0mwCjMbVwUX2GwXAGCcVNobzjgWC_VlTlEyJfRXqvrEqfEvnCrPPHig/s320/cestodes.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #984807; font-family: "Century","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-style-textfill-fill-alpha: 100.0%; mso-style-textfill-fill-color: #984807; mso-style-textfill-fill-colortransforms: lumm=50000; mso-style-textfill-fill-themecolor: accent6; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">The cestodes, or tapeworms, differ in a number of ways from other
flatworms. Their bodies are long and flat, made up of many segments called
proglottids. Each proglottid is a reproductive unit, essentially a factory to
produce gametes. Adults lack cilia and their surface is a tegument (as in
monogeneans and trematodes), but in cestodes the tegument is covered with tiny
projections, microvilli, which increase its surface area and thereby its ability
to absorb nutrients from a host. Digestive tracts are absent completely. At the
tapeworm's anterior end is a specialized segment called a scolex, which is
usually covered with hooks or suckers and serves to anchor it to the host.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #984807; font-family: "Century","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-style-textfill-fill-alpha: 100.0%; mso-style-textfill-fill-color: #984807; mso-style-textfill-fill-colortransforms: lumm=50000; mso-style-textfill-fill-themecolor: accent6; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">All of the 5000 or so known species of tapeworms are endoparasites.
Most require at least two hosts, with the host of the adult tapeworm a
vertebrate. Intermediate hosts are often invertebrates. A number of tapeworm
species inhabit humans.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #4f6228; font-family: "Californian FB","serif"; font-size: 18.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-style-textfill-fill-alpha: 100.0%; mso-style-textfill-fill-color: #4F6228; mso-style-textfill-fill-colortransforms: lumm=50000; mso-style-textfill-fill-themecolor: accent3; mso-themecolor: accent3; mso-themeshade: 128;">Class monogenea</span></b></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiK9bg2XThLbZ4wuDAZ0VLeQGw_vv60f7QZcnPMFwKVv21ToaGGKtmIy-J3eKO-VQouMWdUDpNiUFiUfO6p7XOY3mT4gtUmfZVz-iKFMh6plyu0d3DVDhplloIOiUXboTQ7Idl2jsMX4K8/s1600/Monogenea+Lg(3).jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="130" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiK9bg2XThLbZ4wuDAZ0VLeQGw_vv60f7QZcnPMFwKVv21ToaGGKtmIy-J3eKO-VQouMWdUDpNiUFiUfO6p7XOY3mT4gtUmfZVz-iKFMh6plyu0d3DVDhplloIOiUXboTQ7Idl2jsMX4K8/s200/Monogenea+Lg(3).jpg" width="200" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #984807; font-family: "Century","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-style-textfill-fill-alpha: 100.0%; mso-style-textfill-fill-color: #984807; mso-style-textfill-fill-colortransforms: lumm=50000; mso-style-textfill-fill-themecolor: accent6; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">Monogenetic flukes
spend their entire life cycle as parasites on a single host, often on the gills
and skin of fish; they include no human parasites. They hold on to the fish by
the use of hooks and attachment organs at the posterior end. Most of the
parasite's body space is devoted to the hermaphroditic reproductive system. The
egg on hatching releases a ciliated larva that enables the parasite to reach a
new host. Species of the genus <i>Gyrodactylus</i> can can be serious pests in
hatcheries, particularly since a single worm can give rise to more than one
hundred descendants in three weeks.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<span style="background-color: #9fc5e8;"></span>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11909319886329515670noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6449829783435488555.post-68204389413699824252012-12-09T03:21:00.001-08:002012-12-09T03:21:56.960-08:00all about annelida<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Tempus Sans ITC"; font-size: 22.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> ANNELIDA</span></b></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh3e-61PLnIMneRpFmBkXPJBfxdlomjv44PnafYe5xO6e9caG20bef7scB62WbR-h01BOJT_kgtLSvygrAwuB2m1b3CcmjnpDd4DJvLnkCO_VvZSQ9YFcl4J1kEdFLvTLPWxCXdEF7Nbco/s1600/142003_Annelida.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh3e-61PLnIMneRpFmBkXPJBfxdlomjv44PnafYe5xO6e9caG20bef7scB62WbR-h01BOJT_kgtLSvygrAwuB2m1b3CcmjnpDd4DJvLnkCO_VvZSQ9YFcl4J1kEdFLvTLPWxCXdEF7Nbco/s640/142003_Annelida.jpg" width="561" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Tempus Sans ITC"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Annelida (dalam bahasa latin, annulus =
cincin) atau cacing gelang adalah kelompok cacing dengan tubuh bersegmen.<br />
Berbeda dengan Platyhelminthes dan Nemathelminthes, Annelida merupakan hewan
tripoblastik yang sudah memiliki rongga tubuh sejati (hewan selomata).Namun
Annelida merupakan hewan yang struktur tubuhnya paling sederhana.</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<b><span style="color: #632523; font-family: "Tempus Sans ITC"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-style-textfill-fill-alpha: 100.0%; mso-style-textfill-fill-color: #632523; mso-style-textfill-fill-colortransforms: lumm=50000; mso-style-textfill-fill-themecolor: accent2; mso-themecolor: accent2; mso-themeshade: 128;">Ciri tubuh</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Tempus Sans ITC"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
Ciri tubuh annelida meliputi ukuran, bentuk, struktur, dan fungsi tubuh.</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<b><span style="color: #632523; font-family: "Tempus Sans ITC"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-style-textfill-fill-alpha: 100.0%; mso-style-textfill-fill-color: #632523; mso-style-textfill-fill-colortransforms: lumm=50000; mso-style-textfill-fill-themecolor: accent2; mso-themecolor: accent2; mso-themeshade: 128;">Ukuran dan bentuk
tubuh</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Tempus Sans ITC"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
Annelida memiliki panjang tubuh sekitar 1 mm hingga 3 m.Contoh annelida yang
panjangnya 3 m adalah cacing tanah Australia.Bentuk tubuhnya simetris bilateral
dan bersegmen menyerupai cincin.</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<b><span style="color: #632523; font-family: "Tempus Sans ITC"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-style-textfill-fill-alpha: 100.0%; mso-style-textfill-fill-color: #632523; mso-style-textfill-fill-colortransforms: lumm=50000; mso-style-textfill-fill-themecolor: accent2; mso-themecolor: accent2; mso-themeshade: 128;">Struktur dan fungsi
tubuh</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Tempus Sans ITC"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
Annelida memiliki segmen di bagian luar dan dalam tubuhnya.Antara satu segmen
dengan segmen lainya terdapat sekat yang disebut septa.Pembuluh darah, sistem
ekskresi, dan sistem saraf di antara satu segmen dengan segmen lainnya saling
berhubungan menembus septa.<br />
Rongga tubuh Annelida berisi cairan yang berperan dalam pergerakkan annelida
dan sekaligus melibatkan kontraksi otot.<br />
Ototnya terdiri dari otot melingkar (sirkuler) dan otot memanjang
(longitudinal).<br />
Sistem pencernaan annelida sudah lengkap, terdiri dari mulut, faring, esofagus
(kerongkongan), usus, dan anus.Cacing ini sudah memiliki pembuluh darah
sehingga memiliki sistem peredaran darah tertutup.Darahnya mengandung hemoglobin,
sehingga berwarna merah.Pembuluh darah yang melingkari esofagus berfungsi
memompa darah ke seluruh tubuh.<br />
Sistem saraf annelida adalah sistem saraf tangga tali.Ganglia otak terletak di
depan faring pada anterior.Ekskresi dilakukan oleh organ ekskresi yang terdiri
dari nefridia, nefrostom, dan nefrotor.Nefridia ( tunggal – nefridium )
merupaka organ ekskresi yang terdiri dari saluran.Nefrostom merupakan corong
bersilia dalam tubuh.Nefrotor merupaka npori permukaan tubuh tempat kotoran
keluar.Terdapat sepasang organ ekskresi tiap segmen tubuhnya.</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<b><span style="color: #632523; font-family: "Tempus Sans ITC"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-style-textfill-fill-alpha: 100.0%; mso-style-textfill-fill-color: #632523; mso-style-textfill-fill-colortransforms: lumm=50000; mso-style-textfill-fill-themecolor: accent2; mso-themecolor: accent2; mso-themeshade: 128;">Cara hidup dan
habitat</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Tempus Sans ITC"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
Sebagian besar annelida hidup dengan bebas dan ada sebagian yang parasit dengan
menempel pada vertebrata, termasuk manusia.Habitat annelida umumnya berada di
dasar laut dan perairan tawar, dan juga ada yang segaian hidup di tanah atau
tempat-tempat lembap.Annelida hidup diberbagai tempat dengan membuat liang
sendiri.</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<b><span style="color: #632523; font-family: "Tempus Sans ITC"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-style-textfill-fill-alpha: 100.0%; mso-style-textfill-fill-color: #632523; mso-style-textfill-fill-colortransforms: lumm=50000; mso-style-textfill-fill-themecolor: accent2; mso-themecolor: accent2; mso-themeshade: 128;">Reproduksi</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Tempus Sans ITC"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
Annelida umumnya bereproduksi secara seksual dengan pembantukan gamet.Namun ada
juga yang bereproduksi secara fregmentasi, yang kemudian beregenerasi.Organ
seksual annelida ada yang menjadi satu dengan individu (hermafrodit) dan ada
yang terpisah pada individu lain (gonokoris).</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<b><span style="color: #632523; font-family: "Tempus Sans ITC"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-style-textfill-fill-alpha: 100.0%; mso-style-textfill-fill-color: #632523; mso-style-textfill-fill-colortransforms: lumm=50000; mso-style-textfill-fill-themecolor: accent2; mso-themecolor: accent2; mso-themeshade: 128;">Klasifikasi</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Tempus Sans ITC"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
Annelida dibagi menjadi tiga kelas, yaitu Polychaeta (cacing berambut banyak),
Oligochaeta (cacing berambut sedikit), dan Hirudinea.</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<b><span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "Tempus Sans ITC"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Polychaeta</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "Tempus Sans ITC"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Tempus Sans ITC"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Polychaeta (dalam bahasa yunani, poly =
banyak, chaetae = rambut kaku) merupakan annelida berambut banyak.Tubuh
Polychaeta dibedakan menjadi daerah kepala (prostomium) dengan mata, antena,
dan sensor palpus.<br />
Polychaeta memiliki sepasang struktur seperti dayung yang disebut parapodia
(tunggal = parapodium) pada setiap segmen tubuhnya.Fungsi parapodia adalah
sebagai alat gerak dan mengandung pembuluh darah halus sehingga dapat berfungsi
juga seperti insang untuk bernapas.Setiap parapodium memiliki rambut kaku yang
disebut seta yang tersusun dari kitin.<br />
Contoh Polychaeta yang sesil adalah cacing kipas (Sabellastarte indica) yang
berwarna cerah.Sedangkan yang bergerak bebas adalah Nereis virens, Marphysa
sanguinea, Eunice viridis(cacing palolo), dan Lysidice oele(cacing wawo).</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<b><span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "Tempus Sans ITC"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Oligochaeta</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "Tempus Sans ITC"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Tempus Sans ITC"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Oligochaeta (dalam bahasa yunani, oligo
= sedikit, chaetae = rambut kaku) yang merupakan annelida berambut
sedikit.Oligochaeta tidak memiliki parapodia, namun memiliki seta pada tubuhnya
yang bersegmen.Contoh Oligochaeta yang paling terkenal adalah cacing
tanah.Jenis cacing tanah antara lain adalah cacing tanah Amerika (Lumbricus
terrestris), cacing tanah Asia (Pheretima), cacing merah (Tubifex), dan cacing
tanah raksasa Australia (Digaster longmani).Cacing ini memakan oarganisme hidup
yang ada di dalam tanah dengan cara menggali tanah.Kemampuannya yang dapat
menggali bermanfaat dalam menggemburkan tanah.Manfaat lain dari cacing ini adalah
digunakan untuk bahan kosmetik, obat, dan campuran makan berprotein tinggi bagi
hewan ternak.</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<b><span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "Tempus Sans ITC"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Hirudinea</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Tempus Sans ITC"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
Hirudinea merupakan kelas annelida yang jenisnya sedikit.Hewan ini tidak
memiliki arapodium maupun seta pada segmen tubuhnya.Panjang Hirudinea bervariasi
dari 1 – 30 cm.Tubuhnya pipih dengan ujung anterior dan posterior yang
meruncing.<br />
Pada anterior dan posterior terdapat alat pengisap yang digunakan untuk
menempel dan bergerak.Sebagian besar Hirudinea adalah hewan ektoparasit pada
permukaan tubuh inangnya.Inangnya adalah vertebrata dan termasuk
manusia.Hirudinea parasit hidup denga mengisap darah inangnya, sedangkan
Hirudinea bebas hidup dengan memangsa invertebrata kecil seperti siput.Contoh
Hirudinea parasit adalah Haemadipsa (pacet) dan hirudo (lintah).<br />
Saat merobek atau membuat lubang, lintah mengeluarkan zat anestetik (penghilang
sakit), sehingga korbannya tidak akan menyadari adanya gigitan.Setelah ada
lubang, lintah akan mengeluarkan zat anti pembekuan darah yaitu hirudin.Dengan
zat tersebut lintah dapat mengisap darah sebanyak mungkin.</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11909319886329515670noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6449829783435488555.post-16589396080679378162012-12-06T04:06:00.000-08:002012-12-06T04:06:13.590-08:00seluk beluk si echi<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Mengenal
Seluk Beluk Phylum Echinodermata </span></b></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjYcxrUU11N64QWiVb-o3z3y9Cm04W_F16BktM0r0wB6uWGA4hQmmsrXXKzkSOMzh2rJP7NlVjJ-sTv0V0Hk2bnCAAtiUlocm_JX0vm83d1ApzzsY1emPvgAzFrIN12s17YhFnFishfGd4/s1600/asteroidea-in-beach.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjYcxrUU11N64QWiVb-o3z3y9Cm04W_F16BktM0r0wB6uWGA4hQmmsrXXKzkSOMzh2rJP7NlVjJ-sTv0V0Hk2bnCAAtiUlocm_JX0vm83d1ApzzsY1emPvgAzFrIN12s17YhFnFishfGd4/s320/asteroidea-in-beach.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;">Echinodermata
(dalam bahasa yunani, echino = landak, derma = kulit) adalah kelompok hewan
triopoblastik selomata yang memilki ciri khas adanya rangka dalam
(endoskeleton) berduri yang menembus kulit.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;">Ciri tubuh</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
Ciri tubuh Echinodermata meliputi ukuran, bentuk, struktur, dan fungsi tubuh</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;">Ukuran dan bentuk tubuh</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
Bentuk tubuh Echinodermata ada yang seperti bintang, bulat, pipih, bulat
memanjang, dan seperti tumbuhan.<br />
Tubuh terdiri dari bagian oral (yang memiliki mulut) dan Aboral (yang tidak
memiliki mulut).<br />
<br />
<b>Struktur dan fungsi tubuh</b><br />
Permukaan Echinodermata umumnya berduri, baik itu pendek tumpul atau runcing
panjang.Duri berpangkal pada suatu lempeng kalsium karbonat yang disebut
testa.Sistem saluran air dalam rongga tubuhnya disebut ambulakral.Ambulakral
berfungsi untuk mengatur pergerakan bagian yang menjulur keluar tubuh, yaitu
kaki ambulakral atau kaki tabung ambulakral.Kaki ambulakral memiliki alat
isap.sistem pencernaan terdiri dari mulut, esofagus, lambung, usus, dan
anus.Sistem ekskresi tidak ada.Pertukaran gas terjadi melalui insang kecil yang
merupakan pemanjangan kulit.Sistem sirkulasi belum berkembang
baik.Echinodermata melakukan respirasi dan makan pada selom.Sistem saraf
Echinodermata terdiri dari cincin pusat saraf dan cabang saraf.Echinodermata
tidak memiliki otak.Untuk reproduksi Echinodermata ada yang bersifat
hermafrodit dan dioseus.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;">Cara hidup dan habitat</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
Echinodermata merupakan hewan yang hidup bebas.Makanannya adalah kerang,
plankton, dan organisme yang mati.Habitatnya di dasar air laut, di daerah
pantai hingga laut dalam.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;">Reproduksi</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
Echinodermata bersifat dioseus bersaluran reproduksi sederhana.Fertilisasi
berlangsung secara eksternal.Zigot berkembang menjadi larva yang simetris
bilateral bersilia.Hewan ini juga dapat beregenerasi.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;">Klasifikasi</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
Echinodermata dikelompokkan menjadi lima kelas, yaitu Asteroidea, Ophiuroidea,
Echinoidea, Holothuroidea, dan Crinoidea.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;">Asteroidea</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;"><br />
Asteroidea merupakan spesies Echinodermata yang paling banyak jumlahnya, yaitu
sekitar 1.600 spesies.Asteroidea juga sering disebut bintang laut.Contoh
spesies ini adalah Acanthaster sp., Linckia sp., dan Pentaceros sp.Tubuh
Asteroidea memiliki duri tumpul dan pendek.Duri tersebut ada yang termodifikasi
menjadi bentuk seperti catut yang disebut Pediselaria.Fungsi pediselaria adalah
untuk menangkap makanan serta melindungi permukaan tubuh dari kotoran.Pada
bagian tubuh dengan mulut disebut bagian oral, sedangkan bagian tubuh dengan
lubang anus disebut aboral.Pada hewan ini, kaki ambulakral selain untuk
bergerak juga merupakan alat pengisap sehingga dapat melekat kuat pada suatu
dasar.<br />
Sistem ambulakral Asteroidea terdiri dari :<br />
- Medreporit adalah lempengan berpori pada permukaan cakram pusat dibagian
dorsal tubuh.<br />
- Saluran cincin terdapat di rongga tubuh cakram pusat<br />
- Saluran radial merupakan cabang saluran cincin ke setiap lengan<br />
- Kaki ambulakral merupakan juluran saluran radial yang keluar.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Anggota Asteroidea memiliki
kemampuan regenerasi yang sangat besar.Setiap bagian lengannya dapat
beregenerasi dan bagian cakram pusat yang rusak dapat diganti.Asteroidea
merupakan hewan dioseus, organ kelamin berpasangan pada setiap lengan, dan
fertilisasi terjadi di luar tubuh.</span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;">Ophiuroidea</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgUykqqgzGNtHUO5gV2hQWuyY2Pm1CTqCuVN72GnP_AGG5SFHjkkiBM-rfKADnCxmu5MjDoH7mixGr35Quh3tiOxA9i_OgSNM83gIzvlyNAKpQHyKglOdb4Q2fpRVr9eFc6N6asf3tvza4/s1600/ophiuroidea.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgUykqqgzGNtHUO5gV2hQWuyY2Pm1CTqCuVN72GnP_AGG5SFHjkkiBM-rfKADnCxmu5MjDoH7mixGr35Quh3tiOxA9i_OgSNM83gIzvlyNAKpQHyKglOdb4Q2fpRVr9eFc6N6asf3tvza4/s1600/ophiuroidea.jpg" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;"><br />
Ophiuroidea terdiri dari 2.000 spesies, contohnya adalah bintang ular
(Ophiothrix).Ophiuroidea (dalam bahasa yunani, ophio = ular) berbentuk seperti
asteroidea, namun lengannya lebih langsing dan fleksibel.Cakram pusatnya kecil
dan pipih dengan permukaan aboral (dorsal) yang halus atau berduri
tumpul.Ophiuroidea tidak memiliki pediselaria.Cakram pusat berbatasan dengan
lengan-lengannya.<br />
Hewan ini pun juga dapat beregenerasi.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;">Echinoidea</span></b></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhRJj-N08vzlZ7UfFwxxNKllw3Y3P-cL0LJkG-qasL1nv3c8Vd3DZn-pYMQWr5O8KDPJk0f_xIBlbGlU2RNnZ0DJ8NRTuFAS11JNXNAFKywND4WDjmLfDTK78MKFzhxhPGm0FQvUYfIzJY/s1600/250px-Riccio_Melone_a_Capo_Caccia_adventurediving.it.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhRJj-N08vzlZ7UfFwxxNKllw3Y3P-cL0LJkG-qasL1nv3c8Vd3DZn-pYMQWr5O8KDPJk0f_xIBlbGlU2RNnZ0DJ8NRTuFAS11JNXNAFKywND4WDjmLfDTK78MKFzhxhPGm0FQvUYfIzJY/s1600/250px-Riccio_Melone_a_Capo_Caccia_adventurediving.it.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">bulu babi</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Echinoidea berbentuk bola atau
pipih, tanpa lengan.Echinoidea yang berbentuk bola misalnya bulu babi (diadema
saxatile) dan landak laut (Arabcia punctulata).Permukaan tubuh hewan ini
berduri panjang.Echinoidea memilki alat pencernaan khas, yaitu tembolok
kompleks yang disebut lentera aristoteles.Fungsi dari tembolok tersebut adalah
untuk menggiling makanannya yang berupa ganggang atau sisa-sisa
organisme.Echinoidea yang bertubuh pipih misalnya dolar pasir (Echinarachnius
parma).Permukaan sisi oral tubuhnya pipih, sedangkan sisi aboralnya agak
cembung.Tubuhnya tertutupi oleh duri yang halus dan rapat.Durinya berfungsi
untuk bergerak, menggali, dan melindungi permukaan tubuhnya dari kotoran.Kaki
ambulakral hanya terdapat di sisi oral yang berfungsi utuk mengangkut makanan.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;">Holothuroidea</span></b></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjHEjiP7ZV3UQP0fxoihAYavU9mYPwdFqcjiIAscp8nDPUExiWszK1E4ceebmUDy7n24tIhgYesE1L-PcruW0ux2MDwPc4kI4O2J_G4twYvBN9M_eeUV2SRlU0_rIiEzZi9rnDjDE6uHeE/s1600/Bohadschia-argus1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjHEjiP7ZV3UQP0fxoihAYavU9mYPwdFqcjiIAscp8nDPUExiWszK1E4ceebmUDy7n24tIhgYesE1L-PcruW0ux2MDwPc4kI4O2J_G4twYvBN9M_eeUV2SRlU0_rIiEzZi9rnDjDE6uHeE/s320/Bohadschia-argus1.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;"><br />
Holothuroidea dikenal dengan nama timun laut atau teripang.Contoh hewan ini
adalah Cucumaria sp., Holothuria sp., dan Bohadschia argus.Hewan ini tidak
berlengan dan anus terdapat pada kutub yang berlawanan dari tubuhnya.Daerah
ambulakral dan inter-ambulakral tersusun berselang-seling di sepanjang
tubuhnya.Alur ambulakral tertutup, madreporit terdapat di rongga
tubuhnya.Sebagian kaki ambulakral termodifikasi menjadi tentakel oral.Sistem
respirasinya disebut pohon respirasi, karena sistem tersebut terdiri dari dua
saluran utama yang bercabang pada rongga tubuhnya.Keluar dan masuknya air
melalui anus.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;">Crinoidea</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgyRxthq27Q5I1GwohY9wO0Poi2gbQcNBaCrecm9pp4G2ZhCr05SEXW1cxJFw03OQHC980V1BL4cKLj7S8h34E1Q56tco38Adi3z751K5oKB4leAOONh03NHIiQQm2XB8_q1HxhXY0sAx8/s1600/crinoidea.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="247" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgyRxthq27Q5I1GwohY9wO0Poi2gbQcNBaCrecm9pp4G2ZhCr05SEXW1cxJFw03OQHC980V1BL4cKLj7S8h34E1Q56tco38Adi3z751K5oKB4leAOONh03NHIiQQm2XB8_q1HxhXY0sAx8/s320/crinoidea.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;"><br />
Hewan ini berbentuk seperti tumbuhan.Crinoidea terdiri dari kelompok yang
tubuhnya bertangkai dan tidak bertangkai.Kelompok yang bertangkai dikenal
sebagai lili laut, sedangkan yang tidak bertangkai dikenal sebagai bintang laut
berbulu.Contoh lili laut adalah Metacrinus rotundus dan untuk bintang laut
berbulu adalah Oxycomanthus benneffit dan Ptilometra australis.Lili laut
menetap di kedalaman 100 m atau lebih.Sedangkan yang berbulu hidup di daerah
pasang surut sampai laut dalam.Kedua kelompok tersebut memiliki oral yang
menghadap ke atas.Lengannya yang berjumlah banyak mkengelilingi bagian kaliks
(dasar tubuh).Pada kaliks terdapat mulut dan anus.Jumlah lengan kelipatan lima
dan mengandung cabang-cabang kecil yang disebut pinula.Sistem ambulakral tidak
memiliki madreporit dan ampula.Crinoidea adalah pemakan cairan, misalnya
zooplankton atau partikel makanan.</span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;">Peran Echinodermata bagi Manusia</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
Echinodermata dimanfaatkan oleh manusia sebagai berikut.<br />
- Makanan.Misalnya telur landak laut yang banyak dikonsumsi di Jepang dan
keripik timun laut yang banyak dijual di Sidoarjo. Jawa Timur.<br />
- Bahan penelitian mengenai fertilisasi dan perkembangan awal.Para ilmuwan
biologi sering mengggunakan gamet dan embrio landak laut.<br />
Namun, bintang laut sering dianggap merugikan oleh pembudidaya tiram mutiara
dan kerang laut karena merupakan predator hewan-hewan budidaya tersebut.</span></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11909319886329515670noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6449829783435488555.post-76223877355547352952012-11-25T04:08:00.003-08:002012-11-25T04:09:15.257-08:00virus<!--[if !mso]>
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<span style="color: #4f6228; font-family: "Centaur","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-themecolor: accent3; mso-themeshade: 128;">Virus</span><span style="color: #4f6228; font-family: "Centaur","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-themecolor: accent3; mso-themeshade: 128;"> adalah <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasit" title="Parasit"><span style="color: #4f6228; mso-themecolor: accent3; mso-themeshade: 128;">parasit</span></a>
berukuran mikroskopik yang <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penyakit_infeksi" title="Penyakit infeksi"><span style="color: #4f6228; mso-themecolor: accent3; mso-themeshade: 128;">menginfeksi</span></a>
<a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sel_%28biologi%29" title="Sel (biologi)"><span style="color: #4f6228; mso-themecolor: accent3; mso-themeshade: 128;">sel</span></a>
organisme biologis. Virus bersifat parasit obligat, hal tersebut disebabkan
karena virus hanya dapat <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduksi" title="Reproduksi"><span style="color: #4f6228; mso-themecolor: accent3; mso-themeshade: 128;">bereproduksi</span></a> di dalam material hidup dengan menginvasi dan
memanfaatkan sel makhluk hidup karena virus tidak memiliki perlengkapan selular
untuk bereproduksi sendiri. Biasanya virus mengandung sejumlah kecil <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asam_nukleat" title="Asam nukleat"><span style="color: #4f6228; mso-themecolor: accent3; mso-themeshade: 128;">asam nukleat</span></a>
(<a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA" title="DNA"><span style="color: #4f6228; mso-themecolor: accent3; mso-themeshade: 128;">DNA</span></a> atau <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA" title="RNA"><span style="color: #4f6228; mso-themecolor: accent3; mso-themeshade: 128;">RNA</span></a>, tetapi tidak
kombinasi keduanya) yang diselubungi semacam bahan pelindung yang terdiri atas <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein" title="Protein"><span style="color: #4f6228; mso-themecolor: accent3; mso-themeshade: 128;">protein</span></a>,
<a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipid" title="Lipid"><span style="color: #4f6228; mso-themecolor: accent3; mso-themeshade: 128;">lipid</span></a>,
<a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glikoprotein" title="Glikoprotein"><span style="color: #4f6228; mso-themecolor: accent3; mso-themeshade: 128;">glikoprotein</span></a>,
atau kombinasi ketiganya. <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genom" title="Genom"><span style="color: #4f6228; mso-themecolor: accent3; mso-themeshade: 128;">Genom</span></a> virus akan diekspresikan menjadi baik protein yang
digunakan untuk memuat bahan genetik maupun protein yang dibutuhkan dalam daur
hidupnya.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span style="color: #4f6228; font-family: "Centaur","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-themecolor: accent3; mso-themeshade: 128;">Istilah <i>virus</i> biasanya merujuk pada partikel-partikel yang
menginfeksi sel-sel <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukariota" title="Eukariota"><span style="color: #4f6228; mso-themecolor: accent3; mso-themeshade: 128;">eukariota</span></a> (organisme multisel dan banyak jenis organisme sel
tunggal), sementara istilah <i>bakteriofage</i> atau <i><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fage&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Fage (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: #4f6228; mso-themecolor: accent3; mso-themeshade: 128;">fage</span></a></i> digunakan untuk jenis yang
menyerang jenis-jenis sel <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prokariota" title="Prokariota"><span style="color: #4f6228; mso-themecolor: accent3; mso-themeshade: 128;">prokariota</span></a> (<a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakteri" title="Bakteri"><span style="color: #4f6228; mso-themecolor: accent3; mso-themeshade: 128;">bakteri</span></a> dan organisme lain yang tidak ber<a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inti_sel" title="Inti sel"><span style="color: #4f6228; mso-themecolor: accent3; mso-themeshade: 128;">inti sel</span></a>).</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span style="color: #4f6228; font-family: "Centaur","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-themecolor: accent3; mso-themeshade: 128;">Virus sering diperdebatkan statusnya sebagai makhluk hidup karena ia tidak
dapat menjalankan fungsi biologisnya secara bebas jika tidak berada dalam sel
inang. Karena karakteristik khasnya ini virus selalu terasosiasi dengan
penyakit tertentu, baik pada manusia (misalnya virus <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influenza" title="Influenza"><span style="color: #4f6228; mso-themecolor: accent3; mso-themeshade: 128;">influenza</span></a>
dan <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV" title="HIV"><span style="color: #4f6228; mso-themecolor: accent3; mso-themeshade: 128;">HIV</span></a>),
hewan (misalnya virus <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flu_burung" title="Flu burung"><span style="color: #4f6228; mso-themecolor: accent3; mso-themeshade: 128;">flu burung</span></a>), atau tanaman (misalnya <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus_mosaik_tembakau" title="Virus mosaik tembakau"><span style="color: #4f6228; mso-themecolor: accent3; mso-themeshade: 128;">virus mosaik tembakau</span></a>/TMV).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Centaur","serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://www.azhie.net/2012/04/struktur-virus.html">Struktur
Virus</a></span><span style="font-family: "Centaur","serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> - Setelah mengetahui </span><span style="font-family: "Centaur","serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://www.azhie.net/2012/04/pengertian-virus-virus-adalah.html"><i>Definisi Virus</i></a></span><span style="font-family: "Centaur","serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">, kurang lengkap
rasanya kalo kita ga lanjut menyimak <i>Struktur Virus</i>. Virus terdiri dari
genom asam nukleat (<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">DNA</span> atau <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">RNA</span>) yang berasosiasi dengan protein
yang dikode oleh asam nukleat. Protein tersebut merupakan selubung pelindung
yang disebut kapsid. Selubung protein dibentuk oleh sejumlah molekul protein individu
yang disebut subunit struktural, yang tersusun dalam pola yang tepat dan sangat
repetitif di sekeliling asam nukleat. Genom asam nukleat ditambah selubung
protein pelindung disebut nukleokapsid. Beberapa virus memiliki membran lipid
dua lapis, tetapi membran tersebut diperoleh dari sel inang melalui proses
bertunas (budding). Membran virus mengandung satu atau beberapa protein viral
yang bertindak sebagai ligan untuk berinteraksi dengan reseptor pada sel inang.<br />
<br />
Pada </span><span style="font-family: "Centaur","serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://www.azhie.net/2012/04/struktur-virus.html">Struktur
Virus</a></span><span style="font-family: "Centaur","serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">, ukuran genom yang kecil pada kebanyakan virus membatasi
jumlah protein viral yang dihasilkan. Beberapa virus hanya memiliki satu macam
protein dalam kapsidnya, tetapi kebanyakan virus memiliki beberapa macam
subunit struktural yang berbeda secara kimia dan mereka mengasosiasikan diri
mereka sendiri dalam cara khusus untuk membentuk rakitan yang lebih besar yang
disebut kapsomer. Informasi untuk agregasi yang tepat pada perakitan struktur
subunit menjadi kapsomer terkandung dalam struktur proteinnya.</span></div>
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<span style="color: #4f6228; font-family: "Centaur","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-themecolor: accent3; mso-themeshade: 128;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg6ABTo65zUIVmk-7UC-3xL4fsr5Nwyf9S7hvGxQfxBtvrGeUF4mDMpBZWrhjKTYmOfJ4e2kB-HaJSxRC8XerryBauFls2iV0OVZb7guBe2OyOVQQ_kv4w1vlhJicI-BXJkIsxlrEclBuQ/s1600/Struktur+Virus.jpg"><span style="color: #4f6228; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent3; mso-themeshade: 128; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span style="mso-ignore: vglayout;"><img alt="Struktur Virus" border="0" height="32" src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\gnet\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image001.gif" width="32" /></span></span></a></span><span style="color: #4f6228; font-family: "Centaur","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent3; mso-themeshade: 128;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Centaur","serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
Nukleokapsid virus dikonstruksi dalam susunan yang sangat simetris. Simetris
mengacu pada bagaimana unit morfologi protein disusun dalam cangkang virus.<br />
<br />
Lima bentuk </span><span style="font-family: "Centaur","serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://www.azhie.net/2012/04/struktur-virus.html">struktural
dasar virus</a></span><span style="font-family: "Centaur","serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> di alam yaitu :</span></div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Centaur","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ikosahedral
tidak bermembran, contohnya poliovirus, adenovirus, virus hepatitis A</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Centaur","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Helical tidak
bermembran, contohnya TMV</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Centaur","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ikosahedral
bermembran, contohnya virus herpes, virus rubella</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Centaur","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Helical
bermembran, contohnya virus rabies, virus influenza</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Centaur","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Kompleks,
contohnya poxvirus</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #4f6228; font-family: "Centaur","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent3; mso-themeshade: 128;"><br /><span style="color: black;">
Bentuk ikosahedral adalah bentuk segi 20 yang semua sisinya identik. Cangkang
kapsid dibuat dari subunit protein virus yang berulang. Asam nukleat dikemas di
dalam cangkang kapsid dan dilindungi dari lingkungan oleh kapsid.
Protein-protein bergabung menjadi unit struktural yang disebut sebagai
kapsomer. Kapsomer bisa mengandung satu atau beberapa rantai polipeptida.
Subunit protein dapat berinteraksi dengan asam nukleat maupun subunit protein
lain untuk membentuk struktur berpilin (helical). Contohnya adalah TMV.
Struktur berpilin pada TMV membentuk struktur kaku seperti batang. Pada virus
helical yang bermembran, kapsid lebih fleksibel dan pada pewarnaan negatif
tampak seperti kabel telepon. Virus yang memiliki simetris kompleks sebenarnya
memiliki bentuk yang teratur, tetapi simetrinya tidak sepenuhnya dimengerti. Contohnya
adalah poxvirus.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: purple;"><span style="font-family: "Centaur","serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">I think that’s all is enough, thanks for your attenntion…..
</span><span style="font-family: "Centaur","serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></span></div>
<br />
<span style="font-family: "Centaur","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;"><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasit" title="Parasit"><span style="color: windowtext;"></span></a><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penyakit_infeksi" title="Penyakit infeksi"><span style="color: windowtext;"></span></a><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sel_%28biologi%29" title="Sel (biologi)"><span style="color: windowtext;"></span></a><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduksi" title="Reproduksi"><span style="color: windowtext;"></span></a><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asam_nukleat" title="Asam nukleat"><span style="color: windowtext;"></span></a><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA" title="DNA"><span style="color: windowtext;"></span></a><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA" title="RNA"><span style="color: windowtext;"></span></a><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein" title="Protein"><span style="color: windowtext;"></span></a><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipid" title="Lipid"><span style="color: windowtext;"></span></a><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glikoprotein" title="Glikoprotein"><span style="color: windowtext;"></span></a><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genom" title="Genom"><span style="color: windowtext;"></span></a></span><br />Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11909319886329515670noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6449829783435488555.post-37638902359744994262012-11-25T03:36:00.001-08:002012-11-25T03:36:33.541-08:00FUNNY: The hormonal (endocrine) system is made up of the ...<a href="http://dhuriatifani090594.blogspot.com/2012/11/the-hormonal-endocrine-system-is-made.html?spref=bl">FUNNY: The hormonal (endocrine) system is made up of the ...</a>: The hormonal (endocrine) system is made up of the endocrine glands that secrete hormones . Although there are eight major endocrin...Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11909319886329515670noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6449829783435488555.post-75061231367886448612012-11-13T00:09:00.000-08:002012-11-13T00:09:21.453-08:00PLANT HORMONE<div style="color: #38761d;">
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; color: #38761d; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiRVMaAZGzQqSW2tAP2JHLl-Lesb-lGw0x3p1S0XYvx6Tz7WiNc5ilocqYy5b7Hc5A-hPotzO8WdJoEdGoISd34CCrBFx0geVSnsty0NAGT4WoaWigf9PgKw2WPecltOEy1W0sC0oPNWso/s1600/Hormonal-Plant-Regulation14sep04f1.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="195" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiRVMaAZGzQqSW2tAP2JHLl-Lesb-lGw0x3p1S0XYvx6Tz7WiNc5ilocqYy5b7Hc5A-hPotzO8WdJoEdGoISd34CCrBFx0geVSnsty0NAGT4WoaWigf9PgKw2WPecltOEy1W0sC0oPNWso/s320/Hormonal-Plant-Regulation14sep04f1.gif" width="320" /></a></div>
<div style="color: #38761d; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 18pt;"> </span></div>
<div style="color: #38761d; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 18pt;">What
is a hormone?</span><span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12pt;"></span><br /><span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12pt;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #38761d; line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12pt;">
As plants grow their genotype is expressed in the phenotype which is modified
by the environmental conditions that they experience. Somehow the rates of
growth and differentiation of cells in different parts of the plant are
coordinated in response to these inputs.</span></div>
<div style="color: #38761d;">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #38761d; line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12pt;">There
has to be communication between these levels: how does the plant receive and
respond to environmental inputs or "signals"? What comunication is
there inside the plant to adjust growth and development to the environment?</span></div>
<div style="color: #38761d; text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #38761d; line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12pt;">When
growing plants commercially we can ask similar questions:</span></div>
<div style="color: #38761d; text-align: justify;">
</div>
<ul style="color: #38761d; text-align: justify;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12pt;">what
environmental input will produce the kind of growth that we want?</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12pt;">or can we modify
the growth by applying a chemical regulator?</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12pt;">can change the
genotype to achieve the kind of growth we want (by traditional breeding or
by genetic manipulation)?</span></li>
</ul>
<div style="color: #38761d; text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #38761d; line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12pt;">The
answers to each of these questions depends on an understanding of how plant
growth is regulated. Hormones in animals cooordinate body functions by being
produced in one place and acting in another. Plants do not have a circulatory
system and "action at a distance" may not be a feature of plant
hormones. They are molecules that are not directly involved in metabolic or
developmental processes but they act at low concentrations to modify those
processes.</span></div>
<div style="color: #38761d; text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #38761d; line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12pt;">There
are five generally recognized classes of plant hormone, some of the classes are
represented by only one compound, others by several different compounds. They
are all organic compounds, they may resemble molecules which turn up elsewhere
in plant structure or function, but they are not directly involved as nutrients
or metabolites.</span></div>
<div style="color: #38761d; text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #38761d; line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=6449829783435488555" name="auxin"></a><span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 18pt;">Auxins</span><span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12pt;"></span></div>
<div style="color: #38761d; text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #38761d; line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12pt;">There
is only one naturally occurring auxin: indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) and this is
chemically related to the <a href="http://www.hcs.ohio-state.edu/hcs300/biochem2.htm">amino acid</a> tryptophan.</span></div>
<div style="color: #38761d; text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #38761d; line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12pt;">There
are many synthetic auxins - aromatic compounds with carboxylic sidechains often
affect plant growth in the same way that IAA does. These are used commercially
rather than IAA because they are cheaper and more stable. For example
naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) is used to control fruit set and sucker growth on
trees after pruning. Indole butyric acid is used to promote rooting in
cuttings. Far and away the biggest use of auxin-like compounds is as herbicides
(2,4-D and MCPA). Applied at high concentration they promote uncoordinated
growth and finally death, particularly in broad-leaved weeds.</span></div>
<div style="color: #38761d; text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #38761d; line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=6449829783435488555" name="kinin"></a><span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 18pt;">Cytokinins</span><span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12pt;"></span></div>
<div style="color: #38761d; text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #38761d; line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12pt;">There
are a number of naturally occuring cytokinins all related to the nucleotide <a href="http://www.hcs.ohio-state.edu/hcs300/biochem2.htm">adenine</a>. They can occur as the free base or as a
riboside. Synthetic cytokinins include benzyladenine and kinetin. Cytokinins
are used in tissue culture media, and for growth control in fruit.</span></div>
<div style="color: #38761d; text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #38761d; line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 18pt;">Ethylene</span><span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12pt;"></span></div>
<div style="color: #38761d; text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #38761d; line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=6449829783435488555" name="ethene"></a><span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12pt;">Ethylene is the only gaseous hormone in
the plant world; it is a simple hydrocarbon gas that is derived from the <a href="http://www.hcs.ohio-state.edu/hcs300/biochem2.htm">amino acid</a>, methionine, via an unusual cyclic
compound which is also an amino acid, ACC (1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic
acid).</span></div>
<div style="color: #38761d; text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #38761d; line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12pt;">The
gas is used commercially for ripening fruit, particularly bananas. There are
also synthetic compounds, such as ethephon (chloro-ethanephosphonic acid) that
can be sprayed onto plants in solution; once inside the tissues ethephon breaks
down to liberate ethylene. Ethephon is used to promote ripening on the tree,
leaf abscision in ornamentals, growth control in seedlings and flowering in
pineapples.</span></div>
<div style="color: #38761d; text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #38761d; line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=6449829783435488555" name="aba"></a><span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 18pt;">Abscisic acid</span><span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12pt;"></span></div>
<div style="color: #38761d; text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #38761d; line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12pt;">Abscisic
acid (ABA) is one of two related compounds (the other is xanthoxin) that are in
the isoprenoid group and related to <a href="http://www.hcs.ohio-state.edu/hcs300/biochem3.htm">carotenoids</a> ABA is a very expensive material and
so far there are no synthetic analogs or practical uses</span></div>
<div style="color: #38761d; text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #38761d; line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=6449829783435488555" name="ga"></a><span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 18pt;">Gibberellins</span><span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12pt;"></span></div>
<div style="color: #38761d; text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #38761d; line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12pt;">The
gibberellins (GAs) are the largest group with over 70 compounds although not
all are biologically active. Like ABA they are derived from the <a href="http://www.hcs.ohio-state.edu/hcs300/biochem3.htm">isoprenoid</a> pathway. Gibberellins are used
commercially to break dormancy of "difficult" seeds, and to promote
set of grapes and other fruits.</span></div>
<div style="color: #38761d; text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #38761d; line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12pt;">Many
growth retardants used on flowering pot plants, woody plants and turf are
"anti- gibberellins". Compounds such as ancymidol and uniconazole
block GA synthesis and produce dwarf plants. Genetic dwarfs are often deficient
in gibberellin.</span></div>
<div style="color: #38761d; text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="color: #38761d; line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 18pt;">Hormone
action</span><span style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-size: 12pt;"><br />
At the cell level hormones attach to a protein receptor which sends a signal
down a transduction pathway to switch on particular genes. Through <a href="http://www.hcs.ohio-state.edu/hcs300/virus.htm#dogma">transcription and translation</a> this leads to
production of an enzyme protein which actually causes the change in plant
growth. A good example from the early stages of plant development is the role
of GA in cereal seed germination. As the seed imbibes water the embryo produces
GA. This induces synthesis of amylase in the aleurone layer which secretes the
enzyme to the endosperm. Amylase breaks down starch to glucose which diffuses
to the embryo and is used for the early stages of plant growth.</span></div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11909319886329515670noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6449829783435488555.post-4059076441434199462012-11-12T23:11:00.000-08:002012-11-12T23:17:06.123-08:00CELLULAR REPRODUCTION<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<b>The Basics of
Cellular Reproduction</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
We humans, like other
multicellular organisms, begin life as a single cell. In nine short months,
however, we become trillions of cells because cellular reproduction has
occurred over and over again. Even after we are born, cellular reproduction
doesn’t stop –it continues as we grow, and when we are adults, it replaces
worn-out or damage tissues. Right now, your body is producing thousands of new
red blood cells, skin cells, and cells that line your respiratory and digestive
tracts. If you suffer a cut, cellular reproduction helps repair the injury. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Cellular
reproduction is also necessary for the reproduction of certain organisms. When
an amoeba splits, two new individual amoebas are produced. The process is
called <i>asexual reproduction </i>because
it doesn’t require a sperm and an egg. The next chapter concerns the production
of egg and sperm, which are needed for sexual reproduction.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
One
way to emphasize the importance of cellular reproduction is to say that “all
cells come from cells.” You can’t have a new cell without a pre-existing cell.
And you can’t have a new organism without a pre-existing organism. Cellular
reproduction is necessary for the production of both new cells and a new
organism.</div>
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<span style="color: #c00000;">Chromosomes</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Cellular reproduction always
involves two important processes: growth and cell division. During growth, a
cell duplicates the contents of its cytoplasm and it DNA. Then, during
division, the cytoplasm and the DNA of the parent cell are distributed to the
so-called <i>daughter cells</i>. (these
terms have nothing to do with gender; they are simply a way to designate the
beginning cell and the resulting cells.)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
The
passage of DNA to be daughter cells is critical because cells cannot continue
to live without a copy of the genetic materials. Especially in eukaryotic
cells, passage of DNA to the daughter cells present a problem because of the
large quantity of DNA in the nucleus. For example, a human cell contains about
2 meters of DNA and a nucleus is only 5 to 8 micrometers (µm)
in diameter. During cellular reproduction, DNA is packaged into chromosomes,
which allow DNA to be distributed to the daughter cells. A <b>chromosome</b> contains DNA, and it also contains proteins that help
package the DNA and possibly function in utilizing the DNA as well.</div>
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<span style="color: red;">Chromatin
into chromosomes</span></div>
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When a eukaryotic cell is not
undergoing cell division, the DNA and associated proteins have the appearance
of thin threads called <b>chromatin</b>.
Closer examination reveals that chromatin is periodically wound around a core
of eight protein molecules so that it looks like beads on a string. The protein
molecules are <b>histones</b>, and each
bead is called <b>nucleosome</b>.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Just
before cell division occurs, the chromatin coils tightly into a fiber that has
several nucleosomes to a turn. Then the fiber coils again before it loops back
and forth and condenses to produce highly compacted chromosomes. Each species
has a characteristic number of chromosomes; a human cell has 46 chromosomes. We
can easily chromosomes with a light microscope because just before division
occurs a chromosome is 10,000 times more compact than is chromatin.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Another
important event, that occurs in preparation for partition of chromosomes is <b>DNA replication</b>, when a DNA make a copy
of itself. By the time we can clearly see the chromosomes, they are
duplicated. A duplicated chromosome is
composed of two identical halves called <b>sister
chromatids</b> held together at a
constricted region called a <b>centromere</b>.
Each sister chromatid contains an identical DNA double helix.</div>
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<b>The Cell Cycle</b></div>
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We have already indicated that
cellular reproduction involves duplication of cell contents followed by cell
division. For cellular reproduction to be orderly, you would expect the first
event to occur before the second event, and that’s just happens during the
so-called cell cycle. The <b>cell cycle</b>
is an orderly sequence of stages that takes place between the time a new cell
has arisen from division of a parent cell to the point when it has given rise
to two daughter cells. Duplication of cells contents occurs during the stage
called interphase.</div>
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<span style="color: red;">Interphase</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Most of the cell cycle is spent
in <b>interphase</b>. This is the time when
a cell performs its usual functions, depending on its location in the body. The
amount of time the cell takes for interphase varies widely. Some cells, such as
nerve and muscle cells, typically remain in interphase and cell division is
permanently arrested. These cells are said to have entered a G<sub>0</sub>
stage. Embryonic cells complete the entire cell cycle in just a few hours. In
contrast, interphase alone in a rapidly dividing mammalian cell, such as an
adult stem cell, may last for about 20 hours, which is 90% of the cell cycle.</div>
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DNA
replication occurs in the middle of interphase and serves as a way to divide
interphase into three stages: G<sub>1</sub>, S, and G<sub>2</sub>. G<sub>1</sub>
is the stage before DNA replication, and G<sub>2</sub> is the stage following
DNA synthesis. Originally, G stood for “gap,” but now we know how metabolically
active the cell is, it is better to think of G as standing for “growth.”
Protein synthesis is very much a part of these growth stages.</div>
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During
G<sub>1</sub>, a cell doubles its organelles (such as mitochondria and
ribosomes) and accumulates materials that will be used for DNA replication. Following
G<sub>1</sub>, the cell enters the S stage. The S stand for synthesis, and certainly
DNA synthesis is required for DNA replication. At the beginning f the S stage,
each chromosomes has one DNA double helix. At the end of this stage, each
chromosomes is composed of two sister chromatids, each one have a double helix.
Another way of expressing these events is to say that DNA replication result in
duplicated chromosomes.</div>
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Following
the S stage, G<sub>2</sub> is the stage that extends from the completion of DNA
replication to the onset of mitosis. During this stage, the cell synthesize
proteins that will be needed for cell division, such as the protein found in
microtubules. The role of microtubules in cell division is described in a later
section.</div>
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<span style="color: red;">M
(Mitotic) Stage</span></div>
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Cell division occurs during the M
stage, which encompasses both division of the nucleus and division of
cytoplasm. The type of nuclear division associated with the cell cycle is
called <b>mitosis</b>, which accounts for
why this stage is called the M stage. As a result of mitosis, the daughter
nuclei are identical to the parent cell and to each other-they all have the
same number and kinds of chromosomes. Division of the cytoplasm, which starts
even before mitosis is finished, is called <b>cytokinesis</b>.</div>
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<b>Mitosis and Cytokinesis</b></div>
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Each sister chromatid of a
duplicated chromosome carries the same genetic information because its DNA double
helix has the same sequence of base pairs as did the original chromosome. Thus, it is proper,
once the chromatids have separated, to call them <i>daughter chromosomes</i>. Because each original chromosome goes through
the same process of DNA replication followed by separation of the chromatids to
form daughter chromosomes, the daughter nuclei produced by mitosis are
genitically identical to each other and to the parent nucleus. In the simplest
of terms, if the parent nucleus has 4 chromosomes, each daughter nucleus also
has 4 chromosomes of exactly the same type. One way to keep track of the number
of chromosomes in drawings is to count the number of centromeres. Because every
chromosome has a centromere.</div>
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Every
animal has an even number of chromosomes because each parent contributed half
of the chromosomes to the new individual. In drawing of mitosis, some
chromosomes are colored red and some are colored blue to represent that half of
the chromosomes are derived from those contributed by one parent and the other
half are derived from chromosomes from the other parent.</div>
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<span style="color: red;">The
Spindle </span></div>
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While it may seem easy to
separate the chromatids of only for 4 duplicated chromosomes, imagine the task
when there are 46 chromosomes, as in humans, or 78, as in dogs. Certainly it is
helpful that chromosomes be highly condensed before the task begins, but
clearly some mechanism is needed to complete separation in an organized manner.
Most eukaryotic cells rely on a <b>spindle</b>,
a cytoskeletal structure, to pull the chromatids apart. A spindle has spindle
fiber made of microtubules that are able to assemble and disassemble. First,
the microtubules assemble to form the spindle that takes over the center of the
cell and separates the chromatids. Later, they disassemble.</div>
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A
<b>centrosome</b> is the primary
microtubule organizing center of a cell. Centrosome duplication occurs at the
start of the S phase of the cell cycle and is completed by G<sub>2</sub>.during
the first part of the M stage, the centrosome separate and move to opposite
side of the nucleus, where they form the poles of the spindle. As the nuclear
envelope breaks down, spindle fibers take over the center of the cell. Certain
ones overlap at the <b>spindle equator</b>,
which is midway between the poles. Others attach to duplicated chromosomes in a
way that ensures the separation of the sister chromatids and their proper
distribution to the daughter cells. Whereas the chromosomes will be inside the
newly formed daughter nuclei, a centrosome will be just outside.</div>
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Traditionally,
mitosis is divided into sequence of event, even though it is a continuous
process. We will describe mitosis as having four phase: <b>prophase, metaphase, anaphase</b>, and <b>telophase</b>. These phases for a dividing plant nucleus. Plant cell
have centrosomes but they are not clearly visible especially because they lack centriols.
In animal centriols.</div>
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